What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is "no". Very many people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar. Children start to speak before they even know the word "grammar". But if you are serious about learning a foreign language, the long answer is "yes, grammar can help you to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently." It's important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the grammar (or system) of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or look in a book.
So think of grammar as something good, something positive, something that you can use to find your way - like a signpost or a map.
What are Verbs?
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
• action (Ram plays football.)
• state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:
• to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty or more forms for a single verb.
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
1. Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
• I teach.
• People eat.
• The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.
helping verb main verb
John likes coffee.
You lied to me.
They are happy.
The children are playing.
We must go now.
I do not want any.
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following pages.
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:
• be
o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
• have
o to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)
• do
o to make negatives (I do not like you.)
o to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
o to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
o to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)
Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)
We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
• can, could
• may, might
• will, would,
• shall, should
• must
• ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
• I can't speak Chinese.
• John may arrive late.
• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• You should see a doctor.
• I really must go now.
Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)
The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:
• need
• dare
• used to
Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many, considering that some languages (French, for example) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be, English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary) verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Forms of Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs". Main verbs (except the verb "be") have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. "Be" has 9 forms.
V1 V2 V3
infinitive base past simple past participle present participle present simple, 3rd person singular
regular (to) work work worked worked working works
irregular (to) sing
(to) make
(to) cut sing
make
cut sang
made
cut sung
made
cut singing
making
cutting sings
makes
cuts
(to) do*
(to) have* do
have did
had done
had doing
having does
has
infinitive base past simple past participle present participle present simple
(to) be* be was, were been being am, are, is
In the above examples:
• to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts
• to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works
• to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
• to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
The infinitive can be with or without to. For example, to sing and sing are both infinitives. We often call the infinitive without to the "bare infinitive".
At school, students usually learn by heart the base, past simple and past participle (sometimes called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3) for the irregular verbs. They may spend many hours chanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went, gone; have, had, had; etc. They do not learn these for the regular verbs because the past simple and past participle are always the same: they are formed by adding "-ed" to the base. They do not learn the present participle and 3rd person singular present simple by heart - for another very simple reason: they never change. The present participle is always made by adding "-ing" to the base, and the 3rd person singular present simple is always made by adding "s" to the base (though there are some variations in spelling).
* Note that "do", "have" and "be" also function as helping or auxiliary verbs, with exactly the same forms (except that as helping verbs they are never in infinitive form).
Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive
• I want to work
• He has to sing.
• This exercise is easy to do.
• Let him have one.
• To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
• Work well!
• Make this.
• Have a nice day.
• Be quiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
• I work in London.
• You sing well.
• They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
• I can work tomorrow.
• You must sing louder.
• They might do it.
• You could be right.
Past simple
• I worked yesterday.
• She cut his hair last week.
• They had a good time.
• They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
• I have worked here for five years.
• He needs a folder made of plastic.
• It is done like this.
• I have never been so happy.
Present participle
• I am working.
• Singing well is not easy.
• Having finished, he went home.
• You are being silly!
3rd person singular, present simple
• He works in London.
• She sings well.
• She has a lot of money.
• It is Vietnamese.
Forms of Helping Verbs
All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed or understood*). There are 2 groups of helping verbs:
• Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of the main verb, and in making questions and negatives.
• Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.
Study the table below. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses of helping verbs, and explains the differences between primary and modal helping verbs.
* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to have no main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at the following examples:
• Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is "expressed".)
• Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is "understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I can speak English.
But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary Modal
do (to make simple tenses, and questions and negatives) can could
be (to make continuous tenses, and the passive voice) may might
have (to make perfect tenses) will would
shall should
must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs have exactly the same forms as when they are main verbs (except that as helping verbs they are never used in infinitive forms). Modal helping verbs are invariable. They always have the same form.
Primary helping verbs are followed by the main verb in a particular form:
• do + V1 (base verb)
• be + -ing (present participle)
• have + V3 (past participle) "Ought" is followed by the main verb in infinitive form. Other modal helping verbs are followed by the main verb in its base form (V1).
• ought + to... (infinitive)
• other modals + V1 (base verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function as main verbs.
Modal helping verbs cannot function as main verbs.
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Tenses
The English Tense System
The links below are to lessons for each of the 12 basic tenses. In each lesson we look at two aspects of the tense:
• Structure: How do we make the tense?
• Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional aspects, and most of them finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
Many English learners worry too much about tense. If you stopped 100 native English speakers in the street and asked them about tense, 1 of them might give you an intelligent answer - if you were lucky. The other 99 would know little about terms like "past perfect" or "present continuous". And they would know nothing about aspect, voice or mood. But they can all speak fluent English and communicate effectively. Of course, for ESL it helps to know about tenses, but don't become obsessed with them. Be like those native speakers! Speak naturally!
Present Tense
I do do, I do
Present Continuous Tense
I am doing, I am doing tomorrow
Present Perfect Tense
I have done
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been doing
Past Tense
I did do, I did
Past Continuous Tense
I was doing
Past Perfect Tense
I had done
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been doing
Future Tense
I will do
Future Continuous Tense
I will be doing
Future Perfect Tense
I will have done
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will have been doing
English Tense System
In some languages, verb tenses are not very important or do not even exist. In English, the concept of tense is very important.
In this lesson we look at the idea behind tense, how to avoid confusing tense with time, and the structure of the basic tenses, with examples using a regular verb, an irregular verb and the verb be
What is Tense?
tense (noun): a form of a verb used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation or completeness, of an action in relation to the time of speaking. (From Latin tempus = time).
Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time - past, present and future. Many languages use tenses to talk about time. Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk about time, using different methods.
So, we talk about time in English with tenses. But, and this is a very big but:
• we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense)
• one tense does not always talk about one time (see Tense & Time for more about this)
Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.
Mood
indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be positive (affirmative) or negative
• I like coffee.
• I do not like coffee.
interrogative mood expresses a question
• Why do you like coffee?
imperative mood expresses a command
• Sit down!
subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possible
• The President ordered that he attend the meeting.
Voice
Voice shows the relationship of the subject to the action. In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice). In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice are eaten by cats). Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus of attention.
Aspect
Aspect expresses a feature of the action related to time, such as completion or duration. Present simple and past simple tenses have no aspect, but if we wish we can stress with other tenses that:
• the action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still relevant), for example:
I have emailed the report to Jane. (so now she has the report)
(This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.)
• the action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing (that is, uncompleted), for example:
We are eating.
(This is called progressive aspect, using progressive [continuous] tenses.)
Tense and Time
It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.
For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
• I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
• If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)
The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about different times.
TENSE TIME
past present future
Present Simple I want a coffee. I leave tomorrow.
She likes coffee.
Present Continuous I am having dinner. I am taking my exam next month.
They are living in London.
Present Perfect Simple I have seen ET. I have finished.
Present Perfect Continuous I have been playing tennis.
We have been working for four hours.
Past Simple I finished one hour ago. If she loved you now, she would marry you. If you came tomorrow, you would see her.
Past Continuous I was working at 2am this morning.
Past Perfect Simple I had not eaten for 24 hours.
Past Perfect Continuous We had been working for 3 hours. If I had been working now, I would have missed you. If I had been working tomorrow, I could not have agreed.
Future Simple Hold on. I'll do it now. I'll see you tomorrow.
Future Continuous I will be working at 9pm tonight.
Future Perfect Simple I will have finished by 9pm tonight.
We will have been married for ten years next month.
Future Perfect Continuous They may be tired when you arrive because they will have been working.
In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four hours.
Basic Tenses
For past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using auxiliary verbs). To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary verbs will/shall). This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses.
24 Tenses past present future*
ACTIVE simple tenses past present future
complex tenses
formed with
auxiliary verbs past perfect present perfect future perfect
past continuous present continuous future continuous
past perfect continuous present perfect continuous future perfect continuous
PASSIVE past present future
past perfect present perfect future perfect
past continuous present continuous future continuous
past perfect continuous present perfect continuous future perfect continuous
Some grammar books use the word progressive instead of continuous. They are exactly the same.
The use of tenses in English may be quite complicated, but the structure of English tenses is actually very simple. The basic structure for a positive sentence is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
An auxiliary verb is used in all tenses. (In the simple present and simple past tenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but it does exist for intensification.) The following table shows the 12 tenses for the verb to work in the active voice.
structure past present future*
auxiliary main verb
simple normal I worked I work I will work
intensive do base I did work I do work
perfect have past participle I had worked I have worked I will have worked
continuous be present participle -ing I was working I am working I will be working
continuous perfect have been present participle -ing I had been working I have been working I will have been working
* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The examples are included here for convenience and comparison.
Basic Tenses: Regular Verb
This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
negative: - subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb
question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base verb past past participle present participle -ing
work worked worked working
past present future
SIMPLE
do + base verb
(except future:
will + base verb) + I did work
I worked I do work
I work I will work
- I did not work I do not work I will not work
? Did I work? Do I work? Will I work?
SIMPLE PERFECT
have + past participle + I had worked I have worked I will have worked
- I had not worked I have not worked I will not have worked
? Had I worked? Have I worked? Will I have worked?
CONTINUOUS
be + ing + I was working I am working I will be working
- I was not working I am not working I will not be working
? Was I working? Am I working? Will I be working?
CONTINUOUS PERFECT
have been + ing + I had been working I have been working I will have been working
- I had not been working I have not been working I will not have been working
? Had I been working? Have I been working? Will I have been working?
Regular Verbs List
There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations in American English (for example, "practise" becomes "practice" in American English).
• accept
• add
• admire
• admit
• advise
• afford
• agree
• alert • allow
• amuse
• analyse
• announce
• annoy
• answer
• apologise
• appear • applaud
• appreciate
• approve
• argue
• arrange
• arrest
• arrive
• ask • attach
• attack
• attempt
• attend
• attract
• avoid
• back
• bake
• balance
• ban
• bang
• bare
• bat
• bathe
• battle
• beam • beg
• behave
• belong
• bleach
• bless
• blind
• blink
• blot
• blush
• boast • boil
• bolt
• bomb
• book
• bore
• borrow
• bounce
• bow
• box
• brake • brake
• branch
• breathe
• bruise
• brush
• bubble
• bump
• burn
• bury
• buzz
• calculate
• call
• camp
• care
• carry
• carve
• cause
• challenge
• change
• charge
• chase
• cheat
• check
• cheer
• chew • choke
• chop
• claim
• clap
• clean
• clear
• clip
• close
• coach
• coil
• collect
• colour
• comb
• command
• communicate • compare
• compete
• complain
• complete
• concentrate
• concern
• confess
• confuse
• connect
• consider
• consist
• contain
• continue
• copy
• correct • cough
• count
• cover
• crack
• crash
• crawl
• cross
• crush
• cry
• cure
• curl
• curve
• cycle
• dam
• damage
• dance
• dare
• decay
• deceive
• decide
• decorate
• delay
• delight • deliver
• depend
• describe
• desert
• deserve
• destroy
• detect
• develop
• disagree
• disappear • disapprove
• disarm
• discover
• dislike
• divide
• double
• doubt
• drag
• drain
• dream • dress
• drip
• drop
• drown
• drum
• dry
• dust
• earn
• educate
• embarrass
• employ
• empty
• encourage • end
• enjoy
• enter
• entertain
• escape
• examine • excite
• excuse
• exercise
• exist
• expand
• expect • explain
• explode
• extend
• face
• fade
• fail
• fancy
• fasten
• fax
• fear
• fence • fetch
• file
• fill
• film
• fire
• fit
• fix
• flap • flash
• float
• flood
• flow
• flower
• fold
• follow
• fool • force
• form
• found
• frame
• frighten
• fry
• gather
• gaze
• glow
• glue • grab
• grate
• grease
• greet • grin
• grip
• groan
• guarantee • guard
• guess
• guide
• hammer
• hand
• handle
• hang
• happen
• harass • harm
• hate
• haunt
• head
• heal
• heap • heat
• help
• hook
• hop
• hope
• hover • hug
• hum
• hunt
• hurry
• identify
• ignore
• imagine
• impress
• improve
• include • increase
• influence
• inform
• inject
• injure
• instruct • intend
• interest
• interfere
• interrupt
• introduce
• invent • invite
• irritate
• itch
• jail
• jam • jog
• join • joke
• judge • juggle
• jump
• kick
• kill • kiss
• kneel • knit
• knock • knot
• label
• land
• last
• laugh
• launch • learn
• level
• license
• lick
• lie • lighten
• like
• list
• listen
• live • load
• lock
• long
• look
• love
• man
• manage
• march
• mark
• marry
• match
• mate • matter
• measure
• meddle
• melt
• memorise
• mend
• mess up • milk
• mine
• miss
• mix
• moan
• moor
• mourn • move
• muddle
• mug
• multiply
• murder
• nail
• name • need
• nest • nod
• note • notice
• number
• obey
• object
• observe • obtain
• occur
• offend • offer
• open
• order • overflow
• owe
• own
• pack
• paddle
• paint
• park
• part
• pass
• paste
• pat
• pause
• peck
• pedal
• peel
• peep
• perform • permit
• phone
• pick
• pinch
• pine
• place
• plan
• plant
• play
• please
• plug
• point
• poke
• polish • pop
• possess
• post
• pour
• practise
• pray
• preach
• precede
• prefer
• prepare
• present
• preserve
• press
• pretend • prevent
• prick
• print
• produce
• program
• promise
• protect
• provide
• pull
• pump
• punch
• puncture
• punish
• push
• question • queue
• race
• radiate
• rain
• raise
• reach
• realise
• receive
• recognise
• record
• reduce
• reflect • refuse
• regret
• reign
• reject
• rejoice
• relax
• release
• rely
• remain
• remember
• remind • remove
• repair
• repeat
• replace
• reply
• report
• reproduce
• request
• rescue
• retire
• return • rhyme
• rinse
• risk
• rob
• rock
• roll
• rot
• rub
• ruin
• rule
• rush
• sack
• sail
• satisfy
• save
• saw
• scare
• scatter
• scold
• scorch
• scrape
• scratch
• scream
• screw
• scribble
• scrub
• seal
• search
• separate
• serve
• settle
• shade
• share
• shave
• shelter • shiver
• shock
• shop
• shrug
• sigh
• sign
• signal
• sin
• sip
• ski
• skip
• slap
• slip
• slow
• smash
• smell
• smile
• smoke
• snatch
• sneeze
• sniff
• snore
• snow
• soak • soothe
• sound
• spare
• spark
• sparkle
• spell
• spill
• spoil
• spot
• spray
• sprout
• squash
• squeak
• squeal
• squeeze
• stain
• stamp
• stare
• start
• stay
• steer
• step
• stir
• stitch • stop
• store
• strap
• strengthen
• stretch
• strip
• stroke
• stuff
• subtract
• succeed
• suck
• suffer
• suggest
• suit
• supply
• support
• suppose
• surprise
• surround
• suspect
• suspend
• switch
• talk
• tame
• tap
• taste
• tease
• telephone
• tempt
• terrify
• test
• thank • thaw
• tick
• tickle
• tie
• time
• tip
• tire
• touch
• tour
• tow • trace
• trade
• train
• transport
• trap
• travel
• treat
• tremble
• trick
• trip • trot
• trouble
• trust
• try
• tug
• tumble
• turn
• twist
• type
• undress
• unfasten • unite
• unlock • unpack
• untidy • use
• vanish • visit
• wail
• wait
• walk
• wander
• want
• warm
• warn
• wash • waste
• watch
• water
• wave
• weigh
• welcome
• whine
• whip • whirl
• whisper
• whistle
• wink
• wipe
• wish
• wobble
• wonder • work
• worry
• wrap
• wreck
• wrestle
• wriggle
• x-ray
• yawn • yell
• zip • zoom
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular verbs a lot when speaking, less when writing. Of course, the most famous English verb of all, the verb "to be", is irregular.
What is the difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs?
Base Form Past Simple Past Participle
With regular verbs, the rule is simple...
The past simple and past participle always end in -ed: finish finished finished
stop stopped stopped
work worked worked
But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...
Sometimes the verb changes completely: sing sang sung
Sometimes there is "half" a change: buy bought bought
Sometimes there is no change: cut cut cut
One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as above.
If in doubt, a good dictionary can tell you if a verb is regular or irregular.
Irregular Verbs List
This is a list of some irregular verbs in English. Of course, there are many others, but these are the more common irregular verbs.
V1
Base Form V2
Past Simple V3
Past Participle
awake awoke awoken
be was, were been
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
bid bid bid
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burn burned/burnt burned/burnt
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
drive drove driven
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
show showed showed/shown
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
Basic Tenses: Be
This page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive (+): subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
negative (-): subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb
question (?): auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
But for simple past and simple present tenses, the structure is not the same. In fact, it's even easier. There is no auxiliary verb. Here is the structure:
positive (+): subject + main verb
negative (-): subject + main verb + not
question (?): main verb + subject
These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:
base past simple past participle present participle present simple
be was, were been being am, are, is
past present future
SIMPLE
present simple or past simple
(except future: will + be) + I was I am I will be
- I was not I am not I will not be
? Was I? Am I? Will I be?
SIMPLE PERFECT
have + been + I had been I have been I will have been
- I had not been I have not been I will not have been
? Had I been? Have I been? Will I have been?
CONTINUOUS
be + being + I was being I am being I will be being
- I was not being I am not being I will not be being
? Was I being? Am I being? Will I be being?
CONTINUOUS PERFECT
have been + being + I had been being I have been being I will have been being
- I had not been being I have not been being I will not have been being
? Had I been being? Have I been being? Will I have been being?
In the following table, we see be conjugated for 12 basic tenses.
SIMPLE past present future
singular I was am will be
you were are will be
he/she/it was is will be
plural we were are will be
you were are will be
they were are will be
PERFECT past present future
singular I had been have been will have been
you had been have been will have been
he/she/it had been has been will have been
plural we had been have been will have been
you had been have been will have been
they had been have been will have been
CONTINUOUS past present future
singular I was being am being will be being
you were being are being will be being
he/she/it was being is being will be being
plural we were being are being will be being
you were being are being will be being
they were being are being will be being
CONTINUOUS PERFECT past present future
singular I had been being have been being will have been being
you had been being have been being will have been being
he/she/it had been being has been being will have been being
plural we had been being have been being will have been being
you had been being have been being will have been being
they had been being have been being will have been being
Simple Present Tense
I sing
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
do base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I, you, we, they like coffee.
He, she, it likes coffee.
- I, you, we, they do not like coffee.
He, she, it does not like coffee.
? Do I, you, we, they like coffee?
Does he, she, it like coffee?
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:
subject main verb
+ I am French.
You, we, they are French.
He, she, it is French.
- I am not old.
You, we, they are not old.
He, she, it is not old.
? Am I late?
Are you, we, they late?
Is he, she, it late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?
We use the simple present tense when:
• the action is general
• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
• the action is not only happening now
• the statement is always true
John drives a taxi.
past present future
________________________________________
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
• I live in New York.
• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We meet every Thursday.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past present future
________________________________________
The situation is now.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past present future
________________________________________
The situation is general. Past, present and future.
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about general events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple present tense, for example in conditional or if sentences, or to talk about the future. You will learn about those later.
Present Continuous Tense
I am singing
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense, both in structure and in use.
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Structure: how do we make the present continuous tense?
• Use: when and why do we use the present continuous tense?
• Spelling: how do we spell verbs with -ing for the present continuous tense?
• Present Continuous Tense Quiz
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses. So the present progressive tense is the same as the present continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
be base + ing
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I am speaking to you.
+ You are reading this.
- She is not staying in London.
- We are not playing football.
? Is he watching TV?
? Are they waiting for John?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
• action happening now
• action in the future
Present continuous tense for action happening now
a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past present future
________________________________________
The action is happening now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
John is going out with Mary.
past present future
________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________
The action is happening around now.
Look at these examples:
• Muriel is learning to drive.
• I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.
Present continuous tense for the future
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future - if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past present future
!!! ________________________________________
A firm plan or programme exists now. The action is in the future.
Look at these examples:
• We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
• When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?
We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb:
work > working
play > playing
assist > assisting
see > seeing
be > being
Exception 1 If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:
s t o p
consonant stressed
vowel consonant
(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
stop > stopping
run > running
begin > beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:
open > opening
Exception 2 If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
lie > lying
die > dying
Exception 3 If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:
come > coming
mistake > mistaking
Present Perfect Tense
I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Structure: how to make the present perfect tense
• Use: when and why to use the present perfect tense
• For and Since with the present perfect tense. What's the difference?
• Present Perfect Quiz
The present perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate the present perfect tense into your language. Just try to accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" present perfect! You will soon learn to like the present perfect tense
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?
The structure of the present perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
have past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I have seen ET.
+ You have eaten mine.
- She has not been to Rome.
- We have not played football.
? Have you finished?
? Have they done it?
Contractions with the present perfect tense
When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.
I have I've
You have You've
He has
She has
It has
John has
The car has He's
She's
It's
John's
The car's
We have We've
They have They've
Here are some examples:
• I've finished my work.
• John's seen ET.
• They've gone home.
He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:
• It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice]
• It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]
It is usually clear from the context.
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
I have seen ET.
He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.
past present future
________________________________________ !!!
The action or state was in the past. In my head, I have a memory now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it.
2. Present perfect tense for change
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
I have bought a car.
past present future
- +
Last week I didn't have a car. Now I have a car.
John has broken his leg.
past present future
+ -
Yesterday John had a good leg. Now he has a bad leg.
Has the price gone up?
past present future
+ -
Was the price $1.50 yesterday? Is the price $1.70 today?
The police have arrested the killer.
past present future
- +
Yesterday the killer was free. Now he is in prison.
Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you had lunch?"
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.
I have worked here since June.
He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past present future
________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________
The situation started in the past. It continues up to now. (It will probably continue into the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
• We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
• We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
________________________________________ x------------
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
Here are some examples:
• I have been here for 20 minutes.
• I have been here since 9 o'clock.
• John hasn't called for 6 months.
• John hasn't called since February.
• He has worked in New York for a long time.
• He has worked in New York since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been singing
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb
have
has been base + ing
Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I have been waiting for one hour.
+ You have been talking too much.
- It has not been raining.
- We have not been playing football.
? Have you been seeing her?
? Have they been doing their homework?
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.
I have been I've been
You have been You've been
He has been
She has been
It has been
John has been
The car has been He's been
She's been
It's been
John's been
The car's been
We have been We've been
They have been They've been
Here are some examples:
• I've been reading.
• The car's been giving trouble.
• We've been playing tennis for two hours.
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense:
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.
I'm tired because I've been running.
past present future
________________________________________ !!!
Recent action. Result now.
• I'm tired [now] because I've been running.
• Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?
• You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.
2. An action continuing up to now
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.
I have been reading for 2 hours.
past present future
________________________________________
Action started in past. Action is continuing now.
• I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]
• We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
• How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
• We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]
For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
• We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
• We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
________________________________________ x ________________________________________
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
Here are some examples:
• I have been studying for 3 hours.
• I have been watching TV since 7pm.
• Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
• Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
• He has been playing football for a long time.
• He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.
Simple Past Tense
I sang
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?
To make the simple past tense, we use:
• past form only
or
• auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:
V1
base V2
past V3
past participle
regular verb work
explode
like worked
exploded
liked worked
exploded
liked The past form for all regular verbs ends in -ed.
irregular verb go
see
sing went
saw
sang gone
seen
sung The past form for irregular verbs is variable. You need to learn it by heart.
You do not need the past participle form to make the simple past tense. It is shown here for completeness only.
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + main verb
past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb
did base
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
did base
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I went to school.
You worked very hard.
- She did not go with me.
We did not work yesterday.
? Did you go to London?
Did they work at home?
Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:
subject main verb
+ I, he/she/it was here.
You, we, they were in London.
- I, he/she/it was not there.
You, we, they were not happy.
? Was I, he/she/it right?
Were you, we, they late?
How do we use the Simple Past Tense?
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the past. The event can be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:
The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.
She went to the door.
We did not hear the telephone.
Did you see that car?
past present future
________________________________________
The action is in the past.
Here are some long events with the simple past tense:
I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.
The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
We did not sing at the concert.
Did you watch TV last night?
past present future
________________________________________
The action is in the past.
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:
• the event is in the past
• the event is completely finished
• we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the present perfect.
Here are some more examples:
• I lived in that house when I was young.
• He didn't like the movie.
• What did you eat for dinner?
• John drove to London on Monday.
• Mary did not go to work yesterday.
• Did you play tennis last week?
• I was at work yesterday.
• We were not late (for the train).
• Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple past tense, for example in conditional or if sentences
Past Continuous Tense
I was singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuouse tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
conjugated in simple past tense present participle
was
were base + ing
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I was watching TV.
+ You were working hard.
- He, she, it was not helping Mary.
- We were not joking.
? Were you being silly?
? Were they playing football?
The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the same as for the present continuous tense.
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?
The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.
past present future
________________________________________ 8pm ________________________________________
At 8pm, I was in the middle of watching TV.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
• I was working at 10pm last night.
• They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
• What were you doing at 10pm last night?
• What were you doing when he arrived?
• She was cooking when I telephoned her.
• We were having dinner when it started to rain.
• Ram went home early because it was snowing.
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.
We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..."
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
past present future
Long action.
I was watching TV at 8pm.
________________________________________ 8pm ________________________________________
________________________________________
You telephoned at 8pm.
Short action.
We can join these two actions with when:
• I was watching TV when you telephoned.
(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)
We use:
• when + short action (simple past tense)
• while + long action (past continuous tense)
There are four basic combinations:
I was walking past the car when it exploded.
When the car exploded I was walking past it.
The car exploded while I was walking past it.
While I was walking past the car it exploded.
Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
• "Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.
• "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few milliseconds.
Past Perfect Tense
I had sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past in the past".
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?
The structure of the past perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb
conjugated in simple past tense past participle
had V3
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I had finished my work.
+ You had stopped before me.
- She had not gone to school.
- We had not left.
? Had you arrived?
? Had they eaten dinner?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I had I'd
you had you'd
he had
she had
it had he'd
she'd
it'd
we had we'd
they had they'd
The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:
• We had
or
• We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
• We had arrived (past participle)
• We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example:
• The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.
The train had left when we arrived.
past present future
Train leaves in past at 9am.
9 9.15
________________________________________ ________________________________________
We arrive in past at 9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
• I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
• They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
• I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
• "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."
"Really? Where had she gone?"
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect tense present perfect tense
had
done
>
have
done
>
________________________________________ ________________________________________
past now future past now future
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you:
• "You are too late. The train has left."
Later, you tell your friends:
• "We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered:
Look at these examples:
• He told us that the train had left.
• I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
• He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
• I wondered if I had been there before.
• I asked them why they had not finished.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been singing
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
conjugated in simple past tense past participle present participle
had been base + ing
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I had been working.
+ You had been playing tennis.
- It had not been working well.
- We had not been expecting her.
? Had you been drinking?
? Had they been waiting long?
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary verb:
I had been I'd been
you had been you'd been
he had
she had been
it had been he'd been
she'd been
it'd been
we had been we'd been
they had been they'd been
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
• Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two hours.
Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.
past present future
Ram starts waiting in past at 9am.
9 11
________________________________________ ________________________________________
I arrive in past at 11am.
Here are some more examples:
• John was very tired. He had been running.
• I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
• Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time.
• Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect continuous tense present perfect continuous tense
had
been
doing
>>>>
have
been
doing
>>>>
________________________________________ ________________________________________
past now future past now future
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
• "I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
• "Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."
Simple Future Tense
I will sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + main verb
invariable base
will V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will open the door.
+ You will finish before me.
- She will not be at school tomorrow.
- We will not leave yet.
? Will you arrive on time?
? Will they want dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he will
she will
it will he'll
she'll
it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?
No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
• Hold on. I'll get a pen.
• We will see what we can do to help you.
• Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
• I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
• I think I will have a holiday next year.
• I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
• It will rain tomorrow.
• People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
• Who do you think will get the job?
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:
• I'll be in London tomorrow.
• I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
• Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the present continuous tense or going to.
Future Continuous Tense
I will be singing
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
invariable invariable present participle
will be base + ing
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will be working at 10am.
+ You will be lying on a beach tomorrow.
- She will not be using the car.
- We will not be having dinner at home.
? Will you be playing football?
? Will they be watching TV?
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he will
she will
it will he'll
she'll
it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.
past present future
________________________________________ 4pm ________________________________________
At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
• I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
• They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
• What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
• What will you be doing when I arrive?
• She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
• We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
• Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
Future Perfect Tense
I will have sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
The structure of the future perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb
invariable invariable past participle
will have V3
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will have finished by 10am.
+ You will have forgotten me by then.
- She will not have gone to school.
- We will not have left.
? Will you have arrived?
? Will they have received it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have I'll have I'll've
you will have you'll have you'll've
he will have
she will have
it will have he'll have
she'll have
it'll have he'll've
she'll've
it'll've
we will have we'll have we'll've
they will have they'll have they'll've
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:
• The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
The train will have left when you arrive.
past present future
Train leaves in future at 9am.
9 9.15
________________________________________ ________________________________________
You arrive in future at 9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
• You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
• They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
• "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."
"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense future perfect tense
have
done
>
will
have
done
>
________________________________________ ________________________________________
past now future past now future
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will have been singing
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
invariable invariable past participle present participle
will have been base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will have been working for four hours.
+ You will have been travelling for two days.
- She will not have been using the car.
- We will not have been waiting long.
? Will you have been playing football?
? Will they have been watching TV?
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he will
she will
it will he'll
she'll
it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. Look at these examples:
• I will have been working here for ten years next week.
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours.
Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs
Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:
single-word verb look direct your eyes in a certain direction You must look before you leap.
multi-word verbs prepositional verbs look after take care of Who is looking after the baby?
phrasal verbs look up search for and find information in a reference book You can look up my number in the telephone directory.
phrasal-prepositional verbs look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to meeting you.
In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Phrasal Verbs
• Prepositional Verbs
• Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
• Phrasal Verbs Quiz
Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word verbs into:
• prepositional verbs
• phrasal verbs
• phrasal-prepositional verbs
Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs".
Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs
Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:
single-word verb look direct your eyes in a certain direction You must look before you leap.
multi-word verbs prepositional verbs look after take care of Who is looking after the baby?
phrasal verbs look up search for and find information in a reference book You can look up my number in the telephone directory.
phrasal-prepositional verbs look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to meeting you.
In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Phrasal Verbs
• Prepositional Verbs
• Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
• Phrasal Verbs Quiz
Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word verbs into:
• prepositional verbs
• phrasal verbs
• phrasal-prepositional verbs
Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs".
English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.
"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens.
• If y = 10 then 2y = 20
• If y = 3 then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often.
In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.
Structure of Conditional Sentences
The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:
IF condition result
IF y = 10 2y = 20
or like this:
result IF condition
2y = 20 IF y = 10
First Conditional: real possibility
We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb
If it rains I will stay at home.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb
If I see Mary I will tell her.
If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.
If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad.
If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?
If it rains tomorrow what will you do?
result IF condition
WILL + base verb present simple
I will tell Mary if I see her.
He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?
What will you do if it rains tomorrow?
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.
Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream
The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I won the lottery I would buy a car.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
Here are some more examples:
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I married Mary I would be happy.
If Ram became rich she would marry him.
If it snowed next July would you be surprised?
If it snowed next July what would you do?
result IF condition
WOULD + base verb past simple
I would be happy if I married Mary.
She would marry Ram if he became rich.
Would you be surprised if it snowed next July?
What would you do if it snowed next July?
Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.
Third Conditional: no possibility
The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.
Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(
condition result
Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle
If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.
Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
IF condition result
past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle
If I had seen Mary I would have told her.
If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her.
If they had not passed their exam their teacher would have been sad.
If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?
If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?
result IF condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle past perfect
I would have told Mary if I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.
Their teacher would have been sad if they had not passed their exam.
Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?
Zero Conditional: certainty
We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact.
Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.
IF condition result
present simple present simple
If you heat ice it melts.
Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss my bus.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
IF condition result
present simple present simple
If I miss the 8 o'clock bus I am late for work.
If I am late for work my boss gets angry.
If people don't eat they get hungry.
If you heat ice does it melt?
result IF condition
present simple present simple
I am late for work if I miss the 8 o'clock bus.
My boss gets angry if I am late for work.
People get hungry if they don't eat.
Does ice melt if you heat it?
Conditionals: Summary
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.
probability conditional example time
100%
zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts. any time
50%
first conditional If it rains, I will stay at home. future
10%
second conditional If I won the lottery, I would buy a car. future
0% third conditional If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car. past
Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)
Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").
Can, Could, Be able to
Quiz
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
Can, Could, Be able to
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at these three verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Can
• Could
• Be able to
• Can, Could, Be able to Quiz
Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
• talk about possibility and ability
• make requests
• ask for or give permission
Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I can play tennis.
- He cannot play tennis.
can't
? Can you play tennis?
Notice that:
• Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say:
Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
• She can drive a car.
• John can speak Spanish.
• I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
• Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
can: Requests and Orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):
• Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
• Can you put the TV on.
• Can you come here a minute.
• Can you be quiet!
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?
B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)
Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
• talk about possibility and ability
• make requests
• ask for or give permission
Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I can play tennis.
- He cannot play tennis.
can't
? Can you play tennis?
Notice that:
• Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say:
Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
• She can drive a car.
• John can speak Spanish.
• I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
• Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
can: Requests and Orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):
• Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
• Can you put the TV on.
• Can you come here a minute.
• Can you be quiet!
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?
B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)
Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.
We use be able to:
• to talk about ability
Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive
subject be
main verb able
adjective infinitive
+ I am able to drive.
- She is not able to drive.
isn't
? Are you able to drive?
Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:
• I was able to drive...
• I will be able to drive...
• I have been able to drive...
Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:
• I would like to be able to speak Chinese.
Use of Be able to
Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs.
be able to: ability
We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:
• I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
• You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
• I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't
Quiz
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.
Have to
Must, Must not/Mustn't
Must is a modal auxiliary verb.
Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at these two verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Have to (objective obligation)
• Must (subjective obligation)
• Must not/Mustn't (prohibition)
Have to (objective obligation)
We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:
• Children have to go to school.
Structure of Have to
Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:
subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)
Look at these examples in the simple tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb have infinitive (with to)
+ She has to work.
- I do not have to see the doctor.
? Did you have to go to school?
Use of Have to
In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:
• In France, you have to drive on the right.
• In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
• John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.
We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
subject auxiliary verb main verb have infinitive
past simple I had to work yesterday.
present simple I have to work today.
future simple I will have to work tomorrow.
present continuous She is having to wait.
present perfect We have had to change the time.
modal (may) They may have to do it again.
Must (subjective obligation)
We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:
• I must go.
Structure of Must
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:
subject + must + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary must main verb
I must go home.
You must visit us.
We must stop now.
Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:
• I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)
Use of Must
In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:
• I must stop smoking.
• You must visit us soon.
• He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.
It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.
We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:
• I must go now. (present)
• I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.
Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)
We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:
• Passengers must not talk to the driver.
Structure of Must not
Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must not is:
subject + must not + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Must not is often contracted to mustn't.
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary must + not main verb
I mustn't forget my keys.
You mustn't disturb him.
Students must not be late.
NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:
• You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)
Use of Must not
Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:
• I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
• You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
• Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
• Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)
We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:
• Visitors must not smoke. (present)
• I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk about the past, for example:
• We were not allowed to enter.
• I couldn't park outside the shop.
Shall versus Will
Should versus Would
People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). They say the same thing about should, but it's not really true.
Shall versus Will
People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:
1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)
Person Verb Example Contraction
Singular I shall I shall be in London tomorrow. I'll
you will You will see a large building on the left. You'll
he, she, it will He will be wearing blue. He'll
Plural we shall We shall not be there when you arrive. We shan't
you will You will find his office on the 7th floor. You'll
they will They will arrive late. They'll
2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)
Person Verb Example Contraction
Singular I will I will do everything possible to help. I'll
you shall You shall be sorry for this. You'll
he, she, it shall It shall be done. It'll
Plural we will We will not interfere. We won't
you shall You shall do as you're told. You'll
they shall They shall give one month's notice. They'll
It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'" peruse a good US English dictionary, or many US legal documents which often contain phrases such as:
• Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.
Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
• I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.
Would
Quiz
Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to talk about the past, talk about the future in the past and express the conditional mood.
Would
Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:
• talk about the past
• talk about the future in the past
• express the conditional mood
We also use would for other functions, such as:
• expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope, wish and regret...
Structure of Would
subject + would + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ She would like tea.
'd
- She would not like whisky.
wouldn't
? Would she like coffee?
Notice that:
• Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).
• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
I would to like coffee.
Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:
He'd finished. (He had finished.)
He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)
Use of Would
would: Talking about the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
• Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.
• I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.
Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in reported speech:
• She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
• The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")
• Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")
We often use would not to talk about past refusals:
• He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.
• Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.
We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual past behaviour:
• Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and watch TV.
• Every summer we'd go to the seaside.
• Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.
• We would always argue. We could never agree.
would: Future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about:
• In London she met the man that she would one day marry.
• He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.
would: Conditionals
We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:
• If he lost his job he would have no money.
• IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.
Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving advice:
• I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
• If I were in your place I'd refuse.
• If you asked me I would say you should go.
Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an "if" clause:
• Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)
• You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never know that he was rich.)
• Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.
Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not stated) as in:
• I'd like to stay.
I wish you would. (would stay)
• Do you think he'd come?
I'm sure he would. (would come)
• Who would help us?
John would. (would help us)
would: Desire or inclination
• I'd love to live here.
• Would you like some coffee?
• What I'd really like is some tea.
would: Polite requests and questions
• Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door, please.)
• Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?)
• Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the answer?)
• What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the capital of Nigeria?)
would: Opinion or hope
• I would imagine that they'll buy a new one.
• I suppose some people would call it torture.
• I would have to agree.
• I would expect him to come.
• Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.
would: Wish
• I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)
• They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.
Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or remoteness:
• remoteness in time (past time)
• remoteness of possibility or probability
• remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)
would: Presumption or expectation
• That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it.
• We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning.
Really? They would have been looking for those bank robbers.
would: Uncertainty
• He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to be getting better.)
• It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I was wrong.)
would: Derogatory
• They would say that, wouldn't they?
• John said he didn't steal the money.
Well, he would, wouldn't he?
would that: Regret (poetic/rare) - with clause
This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:
• Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were true!)
• Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.
Should
Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to give advice or make recommendations, talk about obligation or talk about probability and expectation.
Should
Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to:
• give advice or make recommendations
• talk about obligation
• talk about probability and expectation
• express the conditional mood
• replace a subjunctive structure
Structure of Should
subject + should + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ He should go.
- He should not go.
shouldn't
? Should he go?
Notice that:
• Should is invariable. There is only one form of should.
• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
He should to go.
There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be shortened to shouldn't.
Use of Should
should: Giving advice, opinions
We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):
• You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!
• You should try to lose weight.
• John should get a haircut.
• He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.
• What should I wear?
• They should make that illegal.
• There should be a law against that.
• People should worry more about global warming.
People often say "They should..." Usually, the "they" is anonymous and means the government, or the company, or somebody else - but not us!
should: Obligation, duty, correctness
Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of obligation, duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:
• You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation)
• I should be at work now. (duty)
• You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness)
• He should have been more careful.
• Should you be driving so fast?
should: Probability, expectation
We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it to happen):
• Are you ready? The train should be here soon.
• $10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that.
• Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.
should: Conditionals
We sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular (I) and first person plural (we) of some conditionals:
• If I lost my job I should have no money.
(If he lost his job he would have no money.)
• We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.
This is not a very important distinction. (More about the use of shall/will and should/would.)
should: (If I were you I should...)
We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give advice.
• If I were you, I should complain to the manager.
• If I were you I shouldn't worry about it.
• I shouldn't say anything if I were you.
Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say:
• I should complain to the manager.
• I shouldn't worry about it.
• I shouldn't say anything.
In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you should".
should: Pseudo subjunctive
We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines happening, for example:
• The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.
However, this is much more common in American English. British English speakers would probably convey the same idea using should:
• The president insists that the prime minister should attend the meeting.
Here are some more examples:
Subjunctive
typically American English Using should
typically British English
The president is insisting that pollution be reduced. The president is insisting that pollution should be reduced.
The manager recommended that Mary join the company. The manager recommended that Mary should join the company.
It is essential that we decide today. It is essential that we should decide today.
It was necessary that everyone arrive on time. It was necessary that everyone should arrive on time.
should: Why should..?
How should..?
If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use "Why should..?":
• Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life.
"Why should..?" and "How should..?" can also indicate anger or irritation:
• "Help me with this."
"Why should I?"
• "Where are my keys?"
"How should I know?"
Gerunds (-ing)
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
• Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:
• Anthony is fishing.
• I have a boring teacher.
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".
In this lesson, we look at how we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
• Gerunds after Prepositions
• Gerunds after Certain Verbs
• Gerunds in Passive Sense
• Gerunds Quiz
Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is because there is sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle.
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:
• Smoking costs a lot of money.
• I don't like writing.
• My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.
• Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
• I don't like writing letters.
• My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.
Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners):
• pointless questioning
• a settling of debts
• the making of Titanic
• his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:
• a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
• Making "Titanic" was expensive.
• The making of "Titanic" was expensive.
Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
• My favourite occupation is reading.
• My favourite niece is reading.
Gerunds after Prepositions
This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!
If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:
• I will call you after arriving at the office.
• Please have a drink before leaving.
• I am looking forward to meeting you.
• Do you object to working late?
• Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
• I will call you after my arrival at the office.
• Please have a drink before your departure.
• I am looking forward to our lunch.
• Do you object to this job?
• Tara always dreams about holidays.
The above rule has no exceptions!
So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?
1. I am used to driving on the left.
2. I used to drive on the left.
Gerunds after Certain Verbs
We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example:
• I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
• I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form:
• admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand
Look at these examples:
• She is considering having a holiday.
• Do you feel like going out?
• I can't help falling in love with you.
• I can't stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
• I like to play tennis.
• I like playing tennis.
• It started to rain.
• It started raining.
Gerunds in Passive Sense
We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive sense.
• I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
• This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
• The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)
The expression "something wants doing" is not normally used in American English.
Questions or Interrogative
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks for information. Questions are also called "interrogative".
Statement: I like EnglishClub.com.
Question: Do you like EnglishClub.com?
A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ?
In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Basic Question Structure
• Basic Question Types
• Basic Question Structure
• The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
• auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
auxiliary verb subject main verb
Do you like Mary?
Are they playing football?
Will Anthony go to Tokyo?
Have you seen ET?
• Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:
Statement: He is German.
Question: Is he German?
Basic Question Types
There are 3 basic types of question:
1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")
2. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")
3. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")
1. Yes/No Questions
auxiliary verb subject main verb Answer
Yes or No
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can't.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn't.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Is Anne French? Yes, she is.
Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't.
2. Question Word Questions
question word auxiliary verb subject main verb Answer
Information
Where do you live? In Paris.
When will we have lunch? At 1pm.
Who did she meet? She met Ram.
Why hasn't Tara done it? Because she can't.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Where is Bombay? In India.
How was she? Very well.
3. Choice Questions
auxiliary verb subject main verb OR Answer
In the question
Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.
Will we meet John or James? John.
Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Is your car white or black? It's black.
Were they $15 or $50? $15.
Tag Questions
You speak English, don't you?
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag".
A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing instructions is a tag.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.
The basic structure is:
+
Positive statement, -
negative tag?
Snow is white, isn't it?
-
Negative statement, +
positive tag?
You don't like me, do you?
Look at these examples with positive statements:
positive statement [+] negative tag [-] notes:
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary not personal
pronoun
(same as subject)
You are coming, are n't you?
We have finished, have n't we?
You do like coffee, do n't you?
You like coffee, do n't you? You (do) like...
They will help, wo n't they? won't = will not
I can come, can 't I?
We must go, must n't we?
He should try harder, should n't he?
You are English, are n't you? no auxiliary for main verb be present & past
John was there, was n't he?
Look at these examples with negative statements:
negative statement [-] positive tag [+]
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary personal
pronoun
(same as subject)
It is n't raining, is it?
We have never seen that, have we?
You do n't like coffee, do you?
They will not help, will they?
They wo n't report us, will they?
I can never do it right, can I?
We must n't tell her, must we?
He should n't drive so fast, should he?
You are n't English, are you?
John was not there, was he?
Some special cases:
I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)
You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...
I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliary
Nothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements
Let's go, shall we? let's = let us
He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)
Here are some mixed examples:
• But you don't really love her, do you?
• This will work, won't it?
• Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
• But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
• We'd never have known, would we?
• The weather's bad, isn't it?
• You won't be late, will you?
• Nobody knows, do they?
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more examples:
• You don't know of any good jobs, do you?
• You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
• You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real answer:
intonation
You don't know where my wallet is, do you? / rising real question
It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ falling not a real question
Answers to tag questions
A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag question is the whole sentence.
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an oposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:
tag question correct answer
Snow is white, isn't it? Yes (it is). the answer is the same in both cases - because snow IS WHITE! but notice the change of stress when the answerer does not agree with the questioner
Snow isn't white, is it? Yes it is!
Snow is black, isn't it? No it isn't! the answer is the same in both cases - because snow IS NOT BLACK!
Snow isn't black, is it? No (it isn't).
In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
• The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
• The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
• The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
• Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
• Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
• Men don't have babies, do they? No.
• The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
Question tags with imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.
imperative + question tag notes:
invitation Take a seat, won't you? polite
order Help me, can you? quite friendly
Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)
Close the door, would you? quite polite
Do it now, will you? less polite
Don't forget, will you? with negative imperatives only will is possible
Same-way question tags
Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure. We use same-way question tags to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.
• So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!
• She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
• So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
• So you don't like my looks, don't you?
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.
Structure of the Subjunctive
The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"):
be (past) be (present) all other verbs (past & present)
I were
you were
he, she, it were
we were
you were
they were I be
you be
he, she, it be
we be
you be
they be I work
you work
he, she, it work
we work
you work
they work
The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).
Use of the Subjunctive
We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:
• wants to happen
• hopes will happen
• imagines happening
Look at these examples:
• The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
• It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
• If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
• the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that
• the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
• The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
• The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
• It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
• It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
• Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
• Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
• Present: It is essential that she be present.
• Past: It was essential that she be present.
The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in English, where should + infinitive is often used:
• The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night.
• It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible.
We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other words with similar meaning). Look at these sentences:
• If I were you, I would ask her.
• Suppose she were here. What would you say?
Why do we say "I were", "he were"?
We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he would tell you". Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But the if I were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be". It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after:
• if
• as if
• wish
• suppose
Formal
(The were form is correct at all times.) Informal
(The was form is possible in informal, familiar conversation.)
If I were younger, I would go. If I was younger, I would go.
If he weren't so mean, he would buy one for me. If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me.
I wish I weren't so slow! I wish I wasn't so slow!
I wish it were longer. I wish it was longer.
It's not as if I were ugly. It's not as if I was ugly.
She acts as if she were Queen. She acts as if she was Queen.
If I were you, I should tell her. Note: We do not normally say "if I was you", even in familiar conversation.
Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:
• Long live the King!
• God bless America!
• Heaven forbid!
• Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
• Come what may, I will never forget you.
• We are all citizens of the world, as it were.
Active Voice, Passive Voice
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
active subject verb object
>
Cats eat fish.
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:
passive subject verb object
<
Fish are eaten by cats.
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject verb object
active Everybody drinks water.
passive Water is drunk by everybody.
Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice
The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
The main verb is always in its past participle form.
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary verb (to be) main verb (past participle)
Water is drunk by everyone.
100 people are employed by this company.
I am paid in euro.
We are not paid in dollars.
Are they paid in yen?
Use of the Passive Voice
We use the passive when:
• we want to make the active object more important
• we do not know the active subject
subject verb object
give importance to active object (President Kennedy) President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
active subject unknown My wallet has been stolen. ?
Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).
Look at this sentence:
• He was killed with a gun.
Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:
• present simple: It is made
• present continuous: It is being made
• present perfect: It has been made
Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:
infinitive to be washed
simple present It is washed.
past It was washed.
future It will be washed.
conditional It would be washed.
continuous present It is being washed.
past It was being washed.
future It will be being washed.
conditional It would be being washed.
perfect simple present It has been washed.
past It had been washed.
future It will have been washed.
conditional It would have been washed.
perfect continuous present It has been being washed.
past It had been being washed.
future It will have been being washed.
conditional It would have been being washed.
Infinitive or -ing?
Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:
• -ing form (doing, singing)
or
• infinitive form (to do, to sing).
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
• I dislike working late. (???)
• I dislike to work late. (???)
When to use the infinitive
The infinitive form is used after certain verbs:
- forget, help, learn, teach, train
- choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like
- agree, encourage, pretend, promise
- allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
• I forgot to close the window.
• Mary needs to leave early.
• Why are they encouraged to learn English?
• We can't afford to take a long holiday.
The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example:
- disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
• I was happy to help them.
• She will be delighted to see you.
This includes too + adjective:
• The water was too cold to swim in.
• Is your coffee too hot to drink?
The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough:
• He was strong enough to lift it.
• She is rich enough to buy two.
When to use -ing
The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:
• Swimming is good exercise.
• Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
The -ing form is used after a preposition:
• I look forward to meeting you.
• They left without saying "Goodbye."
The -ing form is used after certain verbs:
- avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
• I dislike getting up early.
• Would you mind opening the window?
Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.
• It started to rain.
• It started raining.
• I like to play tennis.
• I like playing tennis.
Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects
We often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example: team, government, committee) as if they were plural. This is particularly true in English and less true in USA English. This is because we often think of the group as people, doing things that people do (eating, wanting, feeling etc).
In such cases, we use:
• plural verb
• they (not it)
• who (not which)
Here are some examples:
• The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave early.
• My family, who don't see me often, have asked me home for Christmas.
• The team hope to win next time.
Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered singular or plural:
• choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury, school, staff, team, union, the BBC, board of directors, the Conservative Party, Manchester United, the Ministry of Health
But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular verbs and pronouns:
• The new company is the result of a merger.
• An average family consists of four people.
• The committee, which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men and four women.
Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is to be consistent.
Using a plural verb with singular subject is less common in American English.
Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses
There are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense. And there are other verbs that we use in the simple tense with one meaning and in the continuous tense with another meaning.
In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses
• Verbs with Two Meanings
• Be and Continuous Tenses
Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses
There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. We usually use the following verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous tenses):
• hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish
• believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember, suppose, understand
• belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe, own, possess
• appear, resemble, seem,
• hear, see
Here are some examples:
I want a coffee. not I am wanting a coffee.
I don't believe you are right. not I am not believing you are right.
Does this pen belong to you? not Is this pen belonging to you?
It seemed wrong. not It was seeming wrong.
I don't hear anything. not I am not hearing anything.
Notice that we often use can + see/hear:
• I can see someone in the distance.
(not I am seeing someone in the distance.)
• I can't hear you very well.
(not I am not hearing you very well.)
Verbs with Two Meanings »
With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action or activity. Compare "to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive sound in your ears". There is no real action or activity by you. We use "to hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear". You make an effort to hear. There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple or continuous tenses.
Verbs with Two Meanings
Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must use a simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple tense.
For example, the verb to think has two different senses:
1. to believe, to have an opinion
I think red is a sexy colour.
2. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called "dynamic".
When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the dynamic sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the situation.
Look at the examples in the table below:
Stative sense
(no real action) Dynamic sense
(a kind of action)
Simple only Continuous Simple
I think she is beautiful. Be quiet. I'm thinking. I will think about this problem tomorrow.
I don't consider that he is the right man for the job. We are considering your job application and will give you our answer in a few days. We consider every job application very carefully.
This table measures 4 x 6 feet. She is measuring the room for a new carpet. A good carpenter measures his wood carefully.
Does the wine taste good? I was tasting the wine when I dropped the glass. I always taste wine before I drink it.
Mary has three children. Please phone later. We are having dinner now. We have dinner at 8pm every day.
If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is there any real action or activity?"
Be and Continuous Tenses
The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb (Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.
Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example, we say:
• London is the capital of the UK.
(not London is being the capital of the UK.)
• Is she beautiful?
(not Is she being beautiful?)
• Were you late?
(not Were you being late?)
Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This is when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course, the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table below:
Mary is a careful person. (Mary is always careful - it's her nature.) John is being careful. (John is acting carefully now, but maybe he is not always careful - we don't know.)
Is he always so stupid? (Is that his personality?) They were being really stupid. (They were behaving really stupidly at that moment.)
Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is not Andrew's character to be selfish.) Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he acting so selfishly at the moment?)
Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being sick":
• She is sick (= she is not well)
• She is being sick (= she is vomiting)
Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense:
I am being
You are being
He, she, it is being
We are being
They are being
Used to do & Be used to
These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Used to do
• Be used to
Used to do
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the past only.
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have different meanings.
Structure of Used to do
The structure is:
subject auxiliary
did not main verb
use infinitive
+ I used to do.
- I did not use to do.
? Did you use to do?
Used or use?
• when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)
• when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)
Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:
• an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
• a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past present future
Look at these examples.
the past the present
She used to work in a shop. Now she works in a bank.
He used to watch a lot of TV. Now he doesn't watch much TV.
They used to be married. Now they are divorced.
There used to be a cinema here. Now there is a supermarket here.
I didn't use to go swimming. Now I go swimming.
Did you use to smoke?
Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."
Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do. They have different meanings.
Structure of Be used to
The structure is:
subject + be + used to + object
subject main verb
be not used to object
+ I am used to horses.
- He is not used to horses.
We aren't used to horses.
? Are you used to horses?
If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form:
I am not used to being lied to.
He is used to working late.
We aren't used to taking the bus.
Are you used to cooking?
Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use -ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition.
Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or easy for us. For example:
• I am used to driving on the left.
It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA, but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am used to it".
Look at these examples.
• I am used to hard work.
• I am used to working hard.
• He is not used to New York.
• He isn't used to living in New York.
• Are you used to fast food?
• Are you used to eating quickly?
Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense that we need. Look at these examples:
• When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.
• I have been used to snakes for a long time.
• You will soon be used to living alone.
Going to
Going to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.
Structure of Going to
The structure is:
subject + be + going + infinitive
The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).
subject be (not) going infinitive
+ I am going to buy a new car.
+ I'm going to go swimming.
- He is not going to take the exam.
- It isn't going to rain.
? Are you going to paint the house?
Use of Going to
Going to - intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:
• Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche.
• We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
• When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before speaking.
Going to - prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
• The sky is very black. It's going to snow.
• It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
• I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
Future Time
The future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not know the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the present. But we can never be 100% certain about the future. In English there are several structures and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually the degree of certainty about the future that decides our choice of structure or tense.
Although we often talk about "future tenses", technically there are no future tenses in English - only different ways of talking about the future, using special constructions, other tenses or modal verbs.
In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the future, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Will for No Plan, Prediction & Be
• Going to for Intention & Prediction
• Present Continuous for Plan
• Present Simple for Schedules
• Summary
Will
One of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for example: I will call you tonight. We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically there are no future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal auxiliary verb.
Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future.
No plan
We use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
• Hold on. I'll get a pen.
• We will see what we can do to help you.
• Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision was made at the time of speaking.
We often use will with the verb think:
• I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
• I think I'll have a holiday next year.
• I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
• It will rain tomorrow.
• People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
• Who do you think will get the job?
Be
The verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan, and we are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at these examples:
• I will be in London tomorrow.
• There will be 50 people at the party.
• The meeting will be at 9.30 am.
The verb be is always exceptional!
Going to
Intention
We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:
• I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
• We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
• When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before we spoke.
Prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are some examples:
• The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
• It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
• I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.
• We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)
• We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence: "It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)
Present Continuous for Plan
We often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of course, we normally use the present continuous to talk about action happening in the present, but if we add a future word, we can use it to talk about the future. (By "future word" we mean words or expressions like tomorrow, next week, in June. The future word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.)
Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and a plan (present continuous). In this case, it doen't matter which we use.
• We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow.
• We're painting the bedroom tomorrow.
We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak. Look at these examples:
• Mary is taking her music exam next year.
• They can't play tennis with you tomorrow. They 're working.
• We're going to the theatre on Friday.
Present Simple for Schedules
When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time for a plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We usually also use a future word (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at 6.30pm, next week.
Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example:
• be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return
Look at these sentences:
• The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight.
• John starts work next week.
• Tomorrow is Thursday.
Future Time: Summary
• When we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in English, because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple fact. When we speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how we "see" the future, even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly expresses what we believe to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of something happening or whether we have already decided to do it.
• This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not exact because language is not a science, and there are many variables. This table should help you to think about the "concept" of the future in English. This concept does not exist in all languages, but it is rather important in English.
% probability before speaker speaks of event happening structure used for example
0% will no plan Don't get up. I'll answer the phone.
70% going to intention We're going to watch TV tonight.
90% present continuous plan I'm taking my exam in June.
99.999% present simple schedule My plane takes off at 6.00am tomorrow.
•
• It is impossible in English to express the future with 100% certainty. (The speakers of any language that can do this must all be billionaires!)
For and Since for Time
We often use for and since when talking about time.
for + period
A period is a duration of time, for example: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. For means "from the beginning of the period until the end of the period." For can be used with all tenses.
since + point
A point is a precise moment in time, for example: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now." Since is normally used with perfect tenses.
for
a period
(from start to end)
>===< since
a point
(up to now)
x===>
for 20 minutes
for three days
for 6 months
for 4 years
for 2 centuries
for a long time
for ever
etc since 9am
since Monday
since January
since 1997
since 1500
since I left school
since the beginning of time
etc
all tenses perfect tenses only
For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:
• They study for two hours every day.
• They are studying for three hours today.
• He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.
• He has been living in Paris for three months.
• I worked at that bank for five years.
• Will the universe continue for ever?
For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc.
• I was there all day. (not *for all day)
Since is normally used with perfect tenses:
• He has been here since 9am.
• He has been working since he arrived.
• I had lived in New York since my childhood.
Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...":
• It is a year since I saw her.
• How long is it since you got married?
Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time. Here are some examples:
• This is for you.
• Is this the train for London?
• Since you ask, I'll say yes.
• Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.
Nouns
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are "actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing
teacher, school, book
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
• person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary
• place: home, office, town, countryside, America
• thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can also be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
• -ity > nationality
• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
• -hood > childhood
But this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun "spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my, such):
• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
• my house
• such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
• subject of verb: Doctors work hard.
• object of verb: He likes coffee.
• subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".
Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns
Why is this important? Why do some nouns have no plural?
dog/dogs, rice, hair(s)
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".
In this lesson we look at:
• Countable Nouns
• Uncountable Nouns
• Nouns that can be Countable & Uncountable
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:
• dog, cat, animal, man, person
• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
• My dog is playing.
• My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
• A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
• Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
• I like oranges.
• Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
• I've got some dollars.
• Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
• I've got a few dollars.
• I haven't got many pens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people:
• There is one person here.
• There are three people here.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
• music, art, love, happiness
• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water
• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
• This news is very important.
• Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:
• a piece of news
• a bottle of water
• a grain of rice
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
• I've got some money.
• Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
• I've got a little money.
• I haven't got much rice.
Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".
Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns:
Countable Uncountable
dollar money
song music
suitcase luggage
table furniture
battery electricity
bottle wine
report information
tip advice
journey travel
job work
view scenery
When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable.
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.
Countable Uncountable
There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don't have much hair.
There are two lights in our bedroom. light Close the curtain. There's too much light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. noise It's difficult to work when there is too much noise.
Have you got a paper to read? (= newspaper) paper I want to draw a picture. Have you got some paper?
Our house has seven rooms. room Is there room for me to sit here?
We had a great time at the party. time Have you got time for a coffee?
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works. work I have no money. I need work!
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):
• Two teas and one coffee please.
Proper Nouns (Names)
Do we say "Atlantic Ocean" or "the Atlantic Ocean"? Should I write "february" or "February"?
Shirley, Mr Jeckyll, Thailand, April, Sony
Proper Nouns (Names)
A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or organization, like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a very special noun - a proper noun. Proper nouns have special rules.
common noun proper noun
man, boy John
woman, girl Mary
country, town England, London
company Ford, Sony
shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds
month, day of the week January, Sunday
book, film War & Peace, Titanic
In this lesson we look at the uses of proper nouns, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns
• Proper Nouns without THE
• Proper Nouns with THE
Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns
We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This includes names of people, places, companies, days of the week and months. For example:
• They like John. (not *They like john.)
• I live in England.
• She works for Sony.
• The last day in January is a Monday.
• We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema.
Proper Nouns without THE
We do not use "the" with names of people. For example:
first names Bill (not *the Bill)
Hilary
surnames Clinton
Gates
full names Hilary Gates
We do not normally use "the" with names of companies. For example:
• Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishClub.com
• General Motors, Air France, British Airways
• Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd
If the full (registered) name of a company starts with "The", then we use "The" if we use the full name, for example:
• The Post Publishing Public Co., Ltd
We do not normally use "the" for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a founder or other person (with -'s or -s). For example:
shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys
banks Barclays Bank
hotels, restaurants Steve's Hotel, Joe's Cafe, McDonalds
churches, cathedrals St John's Church, St Peter's Cathedral
We do not normally use "the" with names of places. For example:
towns Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo
states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe
countries England, Italy, Brazil
continents Asia, Europe, North America
islands Corsica
mountains Everest
Exception! If a country name includes "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc, we use "the":
states the United States, the US, the United States of America, the USA
kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK
republic the French Republic
We do not use "the" with "President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name":
the president, the king President Bush (not *the President Bush)
the captain, the detective Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo
the doctor, the professor Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle
my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill
Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss Black
Look at these example sentences:
• I wanted to speak to the doctor.
• I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.
• Who was the president before President Kennedy?
We do not use "the" with "Lake/Mount + Name":
the lake Lake Victoria
the mount Mount Everest
Look at this example sentence:
• We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake.
We do not normally use "the" for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:
streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue
squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus
parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens
Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for example, Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the name of a person or place, we do not normally use "the":
people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul's Cathedral
places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle
Proper Nouns with THE
We normally use "the" for country names that include "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc:
States the United States of America/the USA
Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK
Republic the French Republic
We normally use "the" for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:
canals the Suez Canal
rivers the River Nile, the Nile
seas the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean
oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific
We normally use "the" for plural names of people and places:
people (families, for example) the Clintons
countries the Philippines, the United States
island groups the Virgin Islands, the British Isles
mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps
Look at these sentences:
• I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill's birthday.
• Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.
• Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.
We normally use "the" with the following sorts of names:
hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant
banks the National Westminster Bank
cinemas, theatres the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema
museums the British Museum, the National Gallery
buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace
newspapers the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post
organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union
We normally use "the" for names made with "of":
• the Tower of London
• the Gulf of Siam
• the Tropic of Cancer
• the London School of Economics
• the Bank of France
• the Statue of Liberty
Possessive 's
Adding 's or ' to show possession.
John's car, my parents' house
Possessive 's
When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually add 's to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a plural noun, for example:
• the boy's ball (one boy)
• the boys' ball (two or more boys)
Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor and not the possessed.
one ball more than one ball
one boy
the boy's ball
the boy's balls
more than one boy
the boys' ball
the boys' balls
The structure can be used for a whole phrase:
• the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
• the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England)
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use possessive 's. The following phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister
2. my sister's boyfriend
Proper Nouns (Names)
We very often use possessive 's with names:
• This is Mary's car.
• Where is Ram's telephone?
• Who took Anthony's pen?
• I like Tara's hair.
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add 's:
• This is Charles's chair.
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the apostrophe ':
• Who was Jesus' father?
Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To show possession, we usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns:
singular noun plural noun
my child's dog my children's dog
the man's work the men's work
the mouse's cage the mice's cage
a person's clothes people's clothes
Noun as Adjective
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun is "acting as" an adjective.
love story, tooth-brush, bathroom
Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun:
adjective noun
clever teacher
small office
black horse
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective.
noun
as adjective noun
history teacher
ticket office
race horse
The "noun as adjective" always comes first
If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about:
• a race horse is a horse that runs in races
• a horse race is a race for horses
• a boat race is a race for boats
• a love story is a story about love
• a war story is a story about war
• a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis
• tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis
• a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers
• a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles
The "noun as adjective" is singular
Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form.
Right Wrong
boat race boat races NOT boats race, boats races
toothbrush toothbrushes NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes
shoe-lace shoe-laces NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces
cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets
In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.
A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged:
• a news reporter, three news reporters
• one billiards table, four billiards tables
• an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers
Exceptions:
When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:
• clothes shop, clothes shops
• sports club, sports clubs
• customs duty, customs duties
• accounts department, accounts departments
• arms production
How do we write the "noun as adjective"?
We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:
• two separate words (car door)
• two hyphenated words (book-case)
• one word (bathroom)
There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)
How do we say the "noun as adjective"?
For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:
• shoe shop
• boat-race
• bathroom
Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?
Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples:
car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars
noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun
costs
production costs
car production costs
England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England
noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun
coach
team coach
football team coach
England football team coach
Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not.
government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government
noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun as
adjective noun
centre
research centre
accident research centre
road accident research centre
government road accident research centre
Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example:
BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY
To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS.
Note, too, that we can still use a real adjective to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:
• empty coffee jar
• honest car salesman
• delicious dog food
• rising car production costs
• famous England football team coach
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words.
tennis shoe, six-pack, bedroom
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is usually [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but there are other combinations (see below). It is important to understand and recognize compound nouns. Each compound noun acts as a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.
There are three forms for compound nouns:
1. open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)
2. hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)
3. closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom)
Here are some examples of compound nouns:
noun + noun bus stop Is this the bus stop for the number 12 bus?
fire-fly In the tropics you can see fire-flies at night.
football Shall we play football today?
adjective + noun full moon I always feel crazy at full moon.
blackboard Clean the blackboard please.
software I can't install this software on my PC.
verb(-ing) + noun breakfast We always eat breakfast at 8am.
washing machine Put the clothes in the red washing machine.
swimming pool What a beautiful swimming pool!
noun + verb(-ing) sunrise I like to get up at sunrise.
haircut You need a haircut.
train-spotting His hobby is train-spotting.
verb + preposition check-out Please remember that check-out is at 12 noon.
noun + prepositional phrase mother-in-law My mother-in-law lives with us.
preposition + noun underworld Do you think the police accept money from the underworld?
noun + adjective truckful We need 10 truckfuls of bricks.
Pronunciation
Compound nouns tend to have more stress on the first word. In the phrase "pink ball", both words are equally stressed (as you know, adjectives and nouns are always stressed). In the compound noun "golf ball", the first word is stressed more (even though both words are nouns, and nouns are always stressed). Since "golf ball" is a compound noun we consider it as a single noun and so it has a single main stress - on the first word. Stress is important in compound nouns. For example, it helps us know if somebody said "a GREEN HOUSE" (a house which is painted green) or "a GREENhouse" (a building made of glass for growing plants inside).
British/American differences
Different varieties of English, and even different writers, may use the open, hyphenated or closed form for the same compound noun. It is partly a matter of style. There are no definite rules. For example we can find:
• container ship
• container-ship
• containership
If you are not sure which form to use, please check in a good dictionary.
Plural forms of compound nouns
In general we make the plural of a compound noun by adding -s to the "base word" (the most "significant" word). Look at these examples:
singular plural
a school teacher three school teachers
one assistant headmaster five assistant headmasters
the sergeant major some sergeants major
a mother-in-law two mothers-in-law
an assistant secretary of state three assistant secretaries of state
my toothbrush our toothbrushes
a woman-doctor four women-doctors
a doctor of philosophy two doctors of philosophy
a passerby, a passer-by two passersby, two passers-by
Note that there is some variation with words like spoonful or truckful. The old style was to say spoonsful or trucksful for the plural. Today it is more usual to say spoonfuls or truckfuls. Both the old style (spoonsful) and the new style (spoonfuls) are normally acceptable, but you should be consistent in your choice. Here are some examples:
old style plural
(very formal) new style plural
teaspoonful 3 teaspoonsful of sugar 3 teasponfuls of sugar
truckful 5 trucksful of sand 5 truckfuls of sand
bucketful 2 bucketsful of water 2 bucketfuls of water
cupful 4 cupsful of rice 4 cupfuls of rice
Some compound nouns have no obvious base word and you may need to consult a dictionary to find the plural:
• higher-ups
• also-rans
• go-betweens
• has-beens
• good-for-nothings
• grown-ups
Note that with compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the first noun is like an adjective and therefore does not usually take an -s. A tree that has apples has many apples, but we say an apple tree, not apples tree; matchbox not matchesbox; toothbrush not teethbrush.
With compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the second noun takes an -s for plural. The first noun acts like an adjective and as you know, adjectives in English are invariable. Look at these examples:
long plural form becomes › plural compound noun
[noun + noun]
100 trees with apples 100 apple trees
1,000 cables for telephones 1,000 telephone cables
20 boxes for tools 20 tool boxes
10 stops for buses 10 bus stops
4,000 wheels for cars 4,000 car wheels
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun phrases.)
An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog).
Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard).
We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).
It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is because, very often, if we use the precise noun we don't need an adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large, impressive house" (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).
Determiners
the, a/an, this, some, any
Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
• a, an, the
Possessive Adjectives:
• my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
Other determiners:
• each, every
• either, neither
• some, any, no
• much, many; more, most
• little, less, least
• few, fewer, fewest
• what, whatever; which, whichever
• both, half, all
• several
• enough
Adjective Order (with Quiz)
beautiful, long, dark brown
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)
adj. noun verb adj.
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.
In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Adjective before noun
• Adjective after certain verbs
Adjective Before Noun
We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
• I like big black dogs.
• She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
• a nice French car (not a French nice car)
("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true about something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material, origin:
• a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
• articles (a, the)
• possessives (my, your...)
• demonstratives (this, that...)
• quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
• numbers (one, two, three)
Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:
adjectives noun
deter-
miner opinion fact
age shape colour
two nice old round red candles
When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":
• Many newspapers are black and white.
• She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of adjectives. But these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order for emphasis. Consider the following conversations:
Conversation 1
A "I want to buy a round table."
B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"
Conversation 2
A "I want to buy an old table".
B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"
Adjective After Certain Verbs
An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound
Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb.
Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective
• Ram is English.
• Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
• Is it getting dark?
• The examination did not seem difficult.
• Your friend looks nice.
• This towel feels damp.
• That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
• Dinner smells good tonight.
• This milk tastes sour.
• It smells bad.
These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful
it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at him
he got the money). The above examples do not include all stative verbs.
Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.
Comparative Adjectives
richer, more exciting
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things).
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":
A1 A2
A1 is bigger than A2.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them:
• Formation of Comparative Adjectives
• Use of Comparative Adjectives
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:
• short adjectives: add "-er"
• long adjectives: use "more"
Short adjectives
• 1-syllable adjectives old, fast
• 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-er" old → older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late → later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant big → bigger
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy → happier
Long adjectives
• 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
• all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
Normal rule: use "more" modern → more modern
expensive → more expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':
• quiet → quieter/more quiet
• clever → cleverer/more clever
• narrow → narrower/more narrow
• simple → simpler/more simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
• good → better
• well (healthy) → better
• bad → worse
• far → farther/further
Use of Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
Look at these examples:
• John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.
• America is big. But Russia is bigger.
• I want to have a more powerful computer.
• Is French more difficult than English?
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown in the table below:
Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth.
Distance from Sun (million km) 150 228 Mars is more distant from the Sun.
Length of day (hours) 24 25 A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth.
Moons 1 2 Mars has more moons than Earth.
Surface temperature (degrees Celcius) 22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth.
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things.
• Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).
Superlative Adjectives
the richest, the most exciting
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":
A B C
A is the biggest.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives, and then at how we use them:
• Formation of Superlative Adjectives
• Use of Superlative Adjectives
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things).
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:
• short adjectives: add "-est"
• long adjectives: use "most"
We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-est" old → the oldest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st late → the latest
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant big → the biggest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy → the happiest
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
Normal rule: use "most" modern → the most modern
expensive → the most expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':
• quiet → the quietest/most quiet
• clever → the cleverest/most clever
• narrow → the narrowest/most narrow
• simple → the simplest/most simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
• good → the best
• bad → the worst
• far → the furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives
We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more things. Look at these examples:
• John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.
• Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.
• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:
Earth Mars Jupiter
Dia-
meter (km) 12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
Dis-
tance from Sun (million km) 150 228 778 Jupiter is the most distant from the Sun.
Length of day (hours) 24 25 10 Jupiter has the shortest day.
Moons 1 2 16 Jupiter has the most moons.
Surface temp.
(degrees Celcius) 22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.
When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":
• England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)
• My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous)
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives
Adjectives describe qualities (characteristics) of nouns.
• Some qualities can vary in intensity or grade (for example: rather hot, hot, very hot; hot, hotter, the hottest).
The adjective hot is gradable.
• Other qualities cannot vary in intensity or grade because they are:
a. extremes (for example: freezing)
b. absolutes (for example: dead)
c. classifying (for example: nuclear)
The adjectives freezing, dead and nuclear are non-gradable.
Gradable Adjectives
A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary the adjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples:
grading adverbs
a little, dreadfully, extremely, fairly, hugely, immensely, intensely, rather, reasonably, slightly, unusually, very + gradable adjectives
angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep, fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot, important, long, popular, rich, strong, tall, warm, weak, young
A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlative forms:
EC Tip: "Gradable adjectives" are also called "qualitative adjectives". "Grading adverbs" are also called "submodifiers".
• big, bigger, the biggest
• hot, hotter, the hottest
• important, more important, the most important
Look at these example sentences:
• My teacher was very happy with my homework.
• That website is reasonably popular. But this one is more popular.
• He said that Holland was a little cold and Denmark was rather cold. But Sweden was the coldest.
EC Tip: The adjective dead is non-gradable because it is an absolute. Dead is dead. We cannot be more or less dead. One person cannot be "deader" than another. Other absolutes include: correct, unique, perfect
Non-gradable Adjectives
A non-gradable adjective cannot be used with grading adverbs:
• It was rather freezing outside.
• The dog was very dead.
• He is investing in slightly nuclear energy.
Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative and superlative forms:
• freezing, more freezing, the most freezing
• dead, deader, the deadest
• nuclear, more nuclear, the most nuclear
Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone:
EC Tip: Don't try to learn lists of gradable and non-gradable adjectives! It's better to understand what makes an adjective gradable or non-gradable. This is a matter of logic and common sense. Most native-speakers have never heard of gradable and non-gradable adjectives. They just "feel" that it doesn't make sense to say "fairly excellent" or "very unique". You probably have the same idea in your language.
• It was freezing outside.
• The dog was dead.
• He is investing in nuclear energy.
However, a non-gradable adjective can be used with "non-grading adverbs" (which usually just give the adjective extra impact), for example:
non-grading adverbs non-gradable adjectives
absolutely awful extreme
utterly excellent
completely terrified
totally dead absolute
nearly impossible
virtually unique
essentially chemical classifying
mainly digital
almost domestic
Here are some example sentences with non-gradable adjectives:
• Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to take the exam again.
• Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtually unique.
• It starts an essentially chemical reaction.
Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable
Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It's possible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and non-gradable with another sense. For example:
adjective common =
He's got a very old car. gradable not young
I saw my old boyfriend yesterday. non-gradable former, ex-
He has some dreadfully common habits. gradable vulgar
"The" is a very common word in English. gradable prevalent
The two countries' common border poses problems. non-gradable shared
Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives
The adverbs really (very much) and fairly and pretty (both meaning "to a significant degree, but less than very") can often be used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
gradable non-gradable
Please don't forget! It's really important. He was really terrified.
He's a fairly rich man. It's a fairly impossible job.
He's pretty tall. It's pretty ridiculous when you think about it.
"Quite" with gradable and non-gradable adjectives
The meaning of the adverb "quite" changes according to the type of adjective we use it with:
adjective quite =
It's quite warm today. gradable fairly, rather
Are you quite certain? non-gradable completely, absolutely
Reference
Non-gradable adjectives
Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying.
alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous, environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately, impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal, ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole
Non-grading adverbs
Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are many more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs with all non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some don't.
absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly, nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually
A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an
We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.
We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we would say:
• I saw the moon last night.
• I saw a star last night.
Look at these examples:
the a, an
• The capital of France is Paris.
• I have found the book that I lost.
• Have you cleaned the car?
• There are six eggs in the fridge.
• Please switch off the TV when you finish. • I was born in a town.
• John had an omelette for lunch.
• James Bond ordered a drink.
• We want to buy an umbrella.
• Have you got a pen?
Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation, not the word. Look at these examples:
• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)
• Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our umbrella, a particular umbrella.)
This little story should help you understand the difference between the and a, an:
A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a dress that she liked in a shop. She asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will accept a cheque? I don't have a credit card."
English Prepositions List
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
For a full list of 150 prepositions, try this downloadable ebook, English Prepositions List by English Club founder Josef Essberger:
• includes one-word and complex prepositions
• 370 example sentences
• 200 quiz questions with answers
• immediate download to your computer
• read on your computer or print out on paper
• works on Windows or Mac
• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at
• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by
• concerning
• considering
• despite
• down
• during
• except
• excepting
• excluding
• following
• for
• from
• in
• inside
• into
• like
• minus
• near
• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over
• past
• per
• plus
• regarding
• round
• save
• since
• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards
• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
• up
• upon
• versus
• via
• with
• within
• without
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