Verbal Confusion

Verbal Confusion

Wood you believe that I didn’t no

About homophones until too daze ago?

That day in hour class in groups of for,

We had to come up with won or more.

Mary new six; enough to pass,

But my ate homophones lead the class.

Then a thought ran threw my head,

“Urn a living from homophones,” it said.

I guess I just sat and staired into space.

My hole life seamed to fall into place.

Our school’s principle happened to come buy,

And asked about the look in my I.

“Sir,” said I as bowled as could bee,

“My future roll I clearly see.”

“Sun,” said he, “move write ahead,

Set sail on your coarse, Don’t be mislead.”

I herd that gnus with grate delight.

I will study homophones both day and knight.

For weaks and months, through thick oar thin,

I’ll pursue my goal. Eye no aisle win.

—George E. Coon
The Reading Teacher, April, 1976

Does it Seem that Pronunciation Is Always Changing More Than Spelling

Good usage in English is based on a mastery of the meanings, pronunciations, and spellings of words and phrases. The field of English grammar is essential to the proper use of words and is very helpful in avoiding the abuse of English usage.

Why Does it Seem that Pronunciation Is Always Changing More Than Spelling?

First, standardization of English spelling is thought to be a result more to the invention of printing than to any other single cause. Prior to the introduction of printing into England by William Caxton in 1475, most people were not concerned with spelling. Reading and writing were activities carried on only by monks and other learned men. As long as people communicated solely by speech, spelling was no problem; but when printing came in, some standards had to be set up. Without some standards, chaos would have resulted because those who read would have been utterly confused by whimsically varied spelling. As larger and larger numbers of people began to read and to write, they saw and used the standardized spellings employed by scholars, "editors", and printers. These standards were loose and flexible, to be sure, but they represented a forward step in communication. This unification of the language, though partial and imperfect, had a profound effect on writing but not, of course, on speech.

Second, it is believed by some scholars that a major regulatory and controlling influence on the language came from early dictionary-makers. The first English dictionary in 1603 spelled and briefly defined a little more than two thousand words. Its compiler did what his predecessors had done when translating Latin words into English: he copied. Naturally, on numerous occasions, he imitated the spellings of his predecessors and this tended to freeze them.

This earliest dictionary was imitated, or expanded upon, by several other lexicographers. In 1755, Dr. Samuel Johnson published his famous dictionary, a serious, important work that has influenced all lexicographers ever since. His dictionary dominated, and tended to fix, English spelling and usage for more than a century.

In the United States, the great pioneer in making dictionaries was Noah Webster. His first work, which was published in 1806, advocated spelling head as hed and thumb as thum; but his efforts at spelling reform were generally rejected by the public. In other respects, however, his work was widely accepted; and in 1828, his well-known An American Dictionary of the English language began to exert its lasting influence on English in this country. Lexicographers since Webster have been somewhat more reliable than he is reporting actual usage but they, too, have had to report spelling as it is found in printed sources. Thus, spelling has become fixed and largely unchangeable, although it frequently does not represent actual pronunciation and often departs from common sense.

There are many influences working against the improvement of what many consider to be the preferred usage of English words and those same influences are receiving credit for increasing the use of malapropisms and miscommunications.

Survival English

Survival English


Are you ready to travel abroad? You already know many words before you go. Words like hotel, taxi and police are international words and used in almost every country! Now you can learn and practise more key English words, phrases, questions and answers before you book your trip. Take our survivor challenges and quizzes as you countdown to take off.

How to Express Condolences

When an English friend’s loved one dies, take a moment to express your sympathy.

How to Survive a Gift Exchange

Are you stressed out about the upcoming gift exchange? Don’t worry! Anyone can be a Secret Santa.

How to Survive a Parent Teacher Interview

Listen and read along to help prepare for the next parent-teacher interview



How to Express Condolences

When a person dies it is difficult to know what to say to the bereaved. If English is your second language, it is even harder to comfort a grieving person. We sometimes use a present tense verb when we should use the past. Don’t feel bad if you do this. Even native English speakers find this awkward in the early hours and days after a person’s passing.

It is important to acknowledge the loss in one form or another. Here are a few expressions you can use to express your care and concern in English when someone passes away.

Expressing Condolences in English

It is a good idea to name the person who died. If you know this person, describe something you loved about him or her. Share a fond memory if you have one. If you don’t know the person, express sadness that you never got to meet him or her or acknowledge the importance of this person to your friend.

• I am so sorry to hear about your loss.

• I was heartbroken by this sad news.

• I will never forget when he/she… (share a memory using the past tense verb)

• You were such a dedicated friend/mother/sister to ______________ (name).

• He/She will be sadly missed. (Add a detail that describes this person’s best quality. For example: He was the best listener. OR He was always there when I needed help with the kids.)

• I’m sorry, but I am at a loss for words. (If you can’t think of anything else to say or write.)

• If you need anything, please ask. (Then offer something specific, such as help with the kids or a home cooked meal or a coffee date.)

• When you are feeling up to it, let’s have coffee together.

• I’m here for you if you need anything.

• Thanks for taking the time to let me know about _________ (name of deceased). (Write or say if you received a special call or email notification about this news.)

Expressing Condolences in Writing

When you are looking for a card in a stationary shop look for “sympathy” cards. You can use many of the same expressions in a sympathy note or card.

• Please accept my/our sincere condolences.

• I would like to express my sincere condolences on the death of __________. (name) He/She was __________. (describe this person in a word or two)

• I’m sorry I could not convey my condolences in person. (If you are far away from a friend. You can use this in a phone call too.)

Words to go with a sympathy gift or donation

Please accept these flowers from our family.

I have made a donation to _____________ (charity or organization) in ________________ (name’s) honour.

As per your request, we have made a donation to _________ in lieu of flowers.

Closing your Condolence note or card

• Your family will be in my thoughts and prayers.

• Wishing you peace as you grieve this loss.

Expressing Condolences via Social Media Networks

It is okay to express your condolences in a comment if the announcement has been made in a status update or blog. Take a moment to send a private note as well.

Common Errors

• spelling of “peace” (not “piece”)

• capitalization of “God” (not “god”)

• spelling of “condolences”

• spelling of “prayers”

Word Checker

bereaved (noun): person who is grieving the loss of a loved one (adjective= “bereaved”)

grieve (verb): to feel and express sadness after the loss of a loved one (noun=”grief”)

acknowledge (verb): to express recognition or realization

deceased (noun): the person who is no longer alive(adjective=”deceased”)

pass away (verb): to die (noun=”passing”: I’m sorry to hear of his passing.)

dedicated (adjective): showing extreme care and commitment to a person or thing

to feel up to something(verb): to be feeling well enough to leave the home and do something with another person

donation (noun): a gift of money or items to a research organization or charity that helps others

in lieu of flowers: instead of buying flowers (use only if the bereaved request donations instead of flowers)

Discuss: Should you say “Time will heal” to a person who has just lost a loved one? We all know this is true, but do we want to hear this phrase when the loss and sadness is so fresh?

How to Survive a Gift Exchange

Are you living in an English-speaking country this Christmas? Is your staff or homestay having a gift exchange? Don’t worry! Being a Secret Santa is fun.

How to take part in a gift exchange

1. Draw a name out of a hat or pick a number. (Sometimes no names are picked. Gifts are randomly picked at the party through various games.)

2. Don’t tell anyone whose name you picked. (Some people may ask you!)

3. Choose an appropriate gift. (Don’t worry about finding the “perfect” gift. Just pick something delicious, funny, or useful that is age or gender appropriate. If there is a “theme,” follow it. )

4. Stay within the set spending limit. Don’t go over or under the amount. Stay as close to the amount as possible. You can always buy a scratch ticket (lottery) to spend an extra dollar or two.

5. Wrap the gift and bring it to the party. (Don’t put your name on the tag. Some people tell each other who the gift is from after. Some never tell.)

6. Follow the instructions. Some gift exchanges have games. You can steal a gift or trade. Another game is “guess the giver”. If you don’t understand the game, say “I don’t get it. What should I do now?”

Ten Gifts for a Gift Exchange

Here are ten suggested gifts for an adult. If the size of the person isn’t obvious, don’t buy clothes.

1. bottle of wine: Even if they don’t drink, they can share it with house guests.

2. case of beer: See above

3. box of chocolates: Avoid chocolates with nuts.

4. movie gift certificates: Make sure they are for a local theatre.

5. coffee card: This is very practical even if it seems boring. The recipient doesn’t have to like coffee.

6. iTunes gift certificate: Or any other gift card for a music store.

7. cool Frisbee or football: Useful in any season.

8. hoodie: A cozy sweatshirt with a hood. (only if you know size and gender)

9. cool pajama pants

10. fuzzy socks, slippers, or mittens

Accept your Gift with Gratitude

If you get a bottle of wine and you don’t drink, don’t say “no thank you.” Always accept any gift you receive and say thank you:

Thank you for the gift.

It’s lovely, thank you.

This is exactly what I need. Thank you!

Oh, you shouldn’t have.

This looks delicious. (for food gifts)

Regift

The word “regift” means to give a gift you received (but did not need or like) to another person. This is a bit tacky, but very common. A better idea is to donate the gift to a charity.

Decline

You don’t have to participate in a gift exchange at a party or office or school. Simply say, “I won’t be taking part in the gift exchange.” You don’t have to explain your religion, views, or budget.

How to Survive the Holiday Season

Even if you don’t celebrate Christmas, it is polite to offer special greetings and farewells throughout the month of December in English speaking countries. You can exchange holiday wishes with anyone, including colleagues, clients, friends, teachers, and anyone in the service industry (cashiers, waiters, bus drivers, hair dressers, etc.).

Here are the most common holiday greetings:

Merry Christmas!

Happy holidays. (use throughout December)

Have a nice Christmas.

Seasons Greetings. (often used in writing)

Happy New Year! (use if you won’t see this person until after Jan 1)

(The same phrases can be used in writing at the end of an email. Use them in place of “Best Wishes” or “Warm Regards”.)

When someone says “Merry Christmas” you can repeat the same phrase back. Or, try one of these responses:

A: Merry Christmas.

B: Merry Christmas to you too.

A: Happy holidays.

B: Same to you.

A: Have a nice Christmas.

B: You too. See you in the New Year

Here are some questions you will hear often during the month of December:

What are you doing for Christmas?

What are you up to this Christmas?

Are you doing anything special for Christmas?

Do you have plans for Christmas?

What are you having for Christmas? (Christmas food)

Where will you be celebrating Christmas? (with friends, at home, at a colleague’s house)

Have you been good this Christmas? (Will Santa bring you a present?)

Would you like to come to a Christmas party?

Are you doing anything on …(date)? (an invitation is coming…)

How to accept an invitation:

I’d love to come, thank you.

That sounds fun!

Sure. That’s very kind of you to think of me.

How to decline an invitation:

I’d love to, but I’m afraid I’m busy.

I’m sorry; I won’t be able to make it.

I wish I could, but I’m ….(your excuse)

How to accept a gift:

Thank you.

Oh, you shouldn’t have.

That was awfully kind of you.

You’re so sweet.

How to offer a gift:

It’s just a little something.

Here’s something for under your tree.

I hope you like it.

Don’t open this until Christmas. OR You can open it now if you’d like.

Christmas Vocabulary to know around Children:

Santa Claus/Father Christmas: he brings children presents after they go to sleep on December 24th

Mrs Claus: Santa’s wife

reindeer: the animals that pull Santa’s sleigh

Rudolph: The red nosed reindeer from the classic Christmas tale. He lights Santa’s way on a foggy night.

Frosty: The popular Christmas snowman

stockings: socks that children hang for Santa to fill

carols: Christmas songs

Gift Exchange Tip: You may receive an unexpected gift from a colleague or friend at Christmas. It’s okay if you don’t have one to give in return. People don’t expect gifts every time they give one. Just remember to say thank you! Another word for “gift” is “present”.

How to Say Thank You

Don’t be shy! Say “thank you” to someone every day.

Here are some more ways to say “thank you” in English:

Thank you so much.

Thanks a bunch.

That’s perfect.

You’re too kind.

You’re the best.

You’re my saviour.

You’re an angel.

What would I do without you?

I owe you one.

I don’t know what to say. (Use if “thank you” seems too small.)

Thank you is not enough.

I really appreciate this/what you’ve done.

I can’t thank you enough.

Sometimes you need to say “no” in a polite way:

No thank you.

No thanks.

Thanks anyway.

Thank you, but I’m not interested.

Not today, thank you.

Note: You may also hear people say, “Thanks, but no thanks.” This is a sarcastic or funny way to say “no thank you”.

Survival challenge: The term “gratitude” means thankful. A good way to practise English daily is to make a Gratitude List at the beginning or end of each day. What are you thankful for today?

How to Shop in English

Your questions: Ask a cashier or salesperson

• Excuse me…how much is…?

• What does …. cost?

• How much is the tax?

• Is “this” on sale?

• What is the price after the discount?

• What’s the total?

• How much do I owe you?

• Do you take/accept cash? (OR credit card, debit, cheques)

• Is this new or used?

• May I try this on?

• Do you have “this” in…? (a different size: extra small, small, medium, large, extra large)

• Can you tell me where the … are? (apples, coats)

• Can I return this if I need to?

Your problems: Tell a clerk or salesperson

• I’m afraid, you gave me the wrong change. (incorrect money back after you make a purchase)

• It doesn’t fit.

• It’s the wrong size.

• I need to return this. OR I need to take this back.

• I lost my receipt. (paper that shows proof of purchase)

• Excuse me, I can’t find the … (ladies clothing, men’s wear, toy section)

Special Offers and Deals: Watch for these signs and ads

• Buy one get one free

• Buy one get 50% off your second item

• Buy now pay later

• Pay no money down (no down payment is required)

• Kids eat free (usually with the purchase of an adult meal)

• Senior’s discount (people 65 and older get a reduced price)

• All out-of season stock on sale (ex. summer clothing is on sale at the end of summer)

Restrictions: Watch for these Warnings (sometimes in small print)

• Deposit required (you must pay a small amount to hold the item)

• No delivery

• No exchanges or refunds (you can’t bring an item back if you decide you don’t like it)

• Exchange only (you can’t get money back; you can change for a different in-store item)

• No coupons on/during/after… (often on a certain day or at a certain time)

• Discount or coupon not valid with other special offers

• Expires … (date you can no longer use coupon or item)

Bonus Expressions to remember

1. It’s okay to put something back on the shelf if the price is too high. The clerk might put it away for you. Smile and say, “Sorry, that’s more than I thought it would be.”

2. It’s polite to have small talk with the cashier. If the price is great, smile and say, “That’s a good deal!”

Survival Challenge: Watch the video “Let’s go Shopping”. What does the shopper say when she decides to buy an item? Put your answer in the comment section.

How to Survive a Parent Teacher Interview



Is English a foreign language in your family? Does your child go to an English language school? Many EFL parents worry about Parent Teacher Interview days. What if my child’s teacher can’t understand me? What if I can’t understand him? Who is supposed to ask the questions?

Don’t worry. You are not alone. Even English speaking parents get nervous before parent teacher interviews. Here is the most important tip. The interview is about your child. There is no grade for you. All you can do is try your best to communicate. Remember that a smile means more than any word.

There are 3 main situations when you will be asked to meet with your child’s teacher:

1) Meet the Teacher Night

• Informal

• The whole family is welcome (let your child show off his school)

• Near the beginning of the school year

• Look at the classroom

• Look at your child’s work space

• Introduce yourself

• Speak briefly with the teacher (give all parents a chance)

• Make an appointment for a formal meeting (if you have a major concern)

Introduce yourself:

“Hello Mrs. Wilkins. I’m Yolanda. I’m Olivia’s mother/ father.”

* Call your teacher by the same name your child does, unless he or she invites you to use a first name. More on How to Address people in English here.

2) Parent Teacher Interview

• after report cards

• discuss your child’s progress

• voice your concerns

• listen to the teacher’s feedback or concerns

3) Regarding a Major Concern

• discuss a major problem about your child that your teacher or administration has raised during the year (the school arranges the interview)

• discuss a major problem that you or your child has (you arrange the interview) Note: The principal or vice principal may also be present at this meeting. If possible, bring a friend or family member whose English is strong.

What to expect at the Parent Teacher Interview

Who? You, your spouse (if possible), and the teacher. You can bring your child and his/her siblings if you don’t have a sitter. The teacher will usually have an activity or play space for the kids to play in while you chat.

What? An opportunity to listen and speak to your child’s teacher. Be sure to read the report card first.

Where? In your child’s classroom.

When? Usually twice a year, after report cards go out. You will probably only have 10-15 minutes with your child’s teacher. Watch the clock and respect the time. Other parents are waiting. Many teachers do interviews on their own time. Arrive a few minutes early and wait outside the classroom until the teacher invites you in.

Why? To discuss progress and concerns. To receive suggestions. To review work.

How? You sit across from the teacher in your child’s classroom

Small Talk

Keep small talk to the bare minimum. Your child’s teacher is very busy. One or two questions is fine. If the teacher asks you a small talk question (unrelated to your child’s progress), keep your answer short and sweet.

You can ask:

“How is your class this year?”

“Have you always taught grade 3?”

Questions you may have for the teacher

• How many students are in your class?

• How many ESL/EFL/ELL kids do you have?

• Does my son/ daughter need extra help?

• Is there any special area my child needs to work on?

• What books can you recommend?

• What level is my child reading at?

• Can you explain what this means on the report card? (point to your question)

• How is he/she doing compared to the rest of the class?

• What can we work on at home?

• How much time should he/she spend doing homework?

• Can you recommend any useful websites?

• How is my child’s behaviour on the playground?

• What is the best way to contact you?

• Can you review the library/parking/attendance policy?

• Can you explain the dress code?

• Is my child participating?

• Does my child get along with the other kids?

• Do you need any help in your class?

Concerns you may have

• My child does not understand your instructions.

• My child says he’s bored at school.

• My child isn’t eating his lunch.

• My child is having trouble making friends.

• My child is complaining about bullying.

• My child is struggling with math/reading/science.

Concerns your child’s teacher may have

• Your child is having trouble concentrating in class.

• Your child has difficulty following instructions.

• Your child needs to participate more.

• Your child is quite shy. I am trying to encourage her to open up.

• Your child calls out in class instead of raising his hand.

• Your child needs a reading buddy.

• Your child needs to practise getting dressed and undressed.

• Your child needs to work on his/her alphabet.

Asking for clarification

• “I’m sorry I didn’t understand what you said.”

• “Can you please repeat that?”

• “Could you write that down for me?”

• “Could you speak a little more slowly?”



Expressing gratitude

• “Thank you for teaching my child.”

• “Thank you for being patient with my child.”

• “Thank you for recognizing my child’s special needs.”

• “My child really enjoys coming to school.”

• “My child is happy when he comes home from school.”

• “I can see by your classroom that you are a very hard working teacher.”

• “Teaching is a very hard job. I admire what you do.”

Follow Up

Tuck a note inside your child’s agenda or lunch bag for his/her teacher.

For example: “Thank you for taking the time to meet with me to talk about (child’s name).

I really enjoyed meeting you. Please call me if you have any concerns. ”

Volunteering

Do you have extra time in your day? Why not offer to volunteer in the classroom? Your English will improve while you lend a helping hand. You could also offer to volunteer on school trips. You might need to get a police check to volunteer. Go into a local police station and provide the necessary information.

How to Give Directions



You know how to ASK for directions, but what happens when an English speaker asks YOU for directions. This is not a time for small talk. Give only basic directions with short phrases. Do the best you can.



Questions you may hear

How do I get to Main Street?

Where is the closest gas station?

Can you tell me where the community centre is?

I’m looking for Jane Street.

Are you from around here?

If you know the way…

Use basic English to offer directions. Short phrases are best. Speak slowly and use very careful pronunciation. Spell out a word if necessary.

The easiest way is to…

The quickest way is to…

The best way is to…

go + direction (right, left, down, up, through)

take + road name

turn + right/left

stay on + road name for + distance or time

Examples:

The easiest way is to go right on Commercial Avenue.

The quickest way is to take Road Number 1.

The best way is to turn right on Main Street.

Stay on Route 1 for about ten minutes.

Use transitions

Separate each leg of the route with a transition.

after that

then

next

when you get to…go…

finally

Offer “Ballpark Figures” (rough estimates of time or length of travel)

Some people feel better knowing how long it will take to get from A to B.

It’s just around the corner (not far).

It’s not far.

It’s a bit of a way. (it takes a while)

It’s about a five minute walk.

It’s about a twenty minute bus ride.

Use landmarks

Tell the person what to watch for.

You will see a large clock on the right.

You will pass a gas station.

It’s across from the blue church.

More useful language

It’s on + street name

It’s across from

It’s opposite

It’s near

It’s around the corner from

Offer warnings

Stay in the right lane.

It’s a very busy road.

It’s a big hill. (if they are walking or on a bike)

There might be construction.

If you pass the … you went too far.

There’s no parking.

Repeat yourself

If YOU repeat the directions again, the other person will feel more confident. Repeat important details including street names and turns. You can also ask the other person to repeat the directions back to you.

If you are in the car with the driver…

Give a lot of warning.

Turn right at the next street

Get in the left lane.

Go one more block. Then turn right.

At the next traffic lights turn…

It’s going to be on your right.

Clarify

Make sure that the other person understood your directions. Say: “Did you get all that?”

If you don’t know the way…

Don’t guess! Don’t just shake your head and walk away. Use one of these phrases:

I’m sorry, I’m not from here.

I’m afraid I can’t help you.

Sorry I don’t know my way around here.

Offer another solution

You could ask the bus driver.

Ask the front desk clerk.

Follow me. I’ll show you the way.

Do you want me to draw you a map?

–

“Read the directions and directly you will be directed in the right direction.”

(Alice in Wonderland)



Satisfy your Sweet Tooth



Just because you’re in an English speaking country, doesn’t mean you’ll stop craving sweets! Make sure you know how to satisfy your sweet tooth. You may need to order dessert, shop for candy, or describe the delightful experience of trying out a new treat.

Types of Dessert

“May I see the dessert menu?” Practise this line before you enter a restaurant or cafe. It’s okay to eat a sundae for dinner if you don’t think you’ll have room after the main event.

pie (apple, lemon marangue, pumpkin, pecan)

cake (cheesecake, sponge cake, shortcake, brownie, carrot)

cupcakes: mini cakes with icing on top (popular for kids)

ice cream cones/sandwich/sundaes

sorbet

mousse

cookies and biscuits (chocolate chip, peanut butter, shortbread, ginger)

squares and bars

pastries (donuts, tarts, fritters)

Types of Toppings and Fillings

These days, people rarely just order a scoop of vanilla ice cream!

icing/frosting: smooth sugary layer on top of cakes

chocolate syrup

butterscotch syrup

strawberry syrup

sprinkles: hard flakes of coloured sugar

powdered sugar

cinnamon

peanuts

almonds

whipped cream

chocolate shavings

custard: sweet milk and egg mixture

jelly or fruit compote: sweetened and mashed berries or fruit with sugar

chocolate chips

Types of Candy

You can buy candy at a candy shop or a sweet shop or a corner store or a grocery store. You can also raid the bulk food section or a booth at a market to get your sugar fix.

hard candies (wrapped)

chocolate bar/candy bar

liquorice (red or black)

mints

cinnamon hearts (spicy)

sour candies

candy corn (orange and black cone shaped)

jellybeans

jujubes

bubble gum/gumballs/stick of gum

gummy bears/worms

candy floss (also called cotton candy)

lollipops

candy apple

chocolate or candy coated raisins/peanuts/pretzels

taffy

powdered candy

Types of Chocolate

Are you a chocoholic? If so, you probably have a preference to one of these types.

milk chocolate

dark chocolate

semi-sweet

white chocolate

unsweetened chocolate

mint chocolate

How to Describe Sweets

“How is your dessert?” Practise these descriptive words and phrases or simply lick your lips and nod happily if you are enjoying a bite.

delicious

scrumptious

tasty

yummy

to die for

*If you don’t like your dessert or treat you can say it is too:

sticky

sour

sweet for my taste

heavy: you feel too full after you eat it

rich: the taste is too strong (such as dark chocolate)

bland: not enough taste

*If you’re only looking or still thinking about what to choose you can say the treats look “mouth watering” or “tempting”.

No Thank You

“Did you save any room for dessert?” This is what many servers will ask at a restaurant. If you don’t want dessert, you can say “I’d love to, but I’m afraid I’m full.” If the dessert menu doesn’t interest you, you can say “We’re going to pass on dessert tonight. Thank you.”

Spelling Tip

Dessert has two s’s and “desert” (dry land) has one “s”. Think of dessert as being extra special. This is why it needs an extra “s”.

Comments: Let’s talk about sweets! What’s your favourite type of candy or dessert? Is there a treat we should try when we visit your country?

Thanks once again to our Facebook Friends for providing plenty of tasty inspiration for this lesson!

Grocery Shopping in English



A grocery store is also called a supermarket or a greengrocer. Chain grocery stores are referred to by name. Learn the names of these stores before you travel to a new country. Superstores or department stores often have full grocery sections inside.

Shop Smart

Grocery stores are set up for you to buy more than you need. Fresh foods and staples are usually placed in the outside aisles or at the far end of a grocery store.

At the front you will find convenience foods and sale items. At the checkout you will find things you probably don’t need, such as chocolate bars and magazines. The store is counting on you to throw a few of these items into your cart or basket. This is called impulse shopping. Can you resist the temptation?

Gathering and packing

Most grocery stores offer a variety of options for gathering and packing items. Don’t be surprised if you have to buy your bags.

• shopping cart: pushcart on wheels (you may have to put a coin deposit in the slot)

• basket: plastic container with handles; useful for quick grocery trips when you only need a few items

• box: sometimes available for free at the checkout

• plastic or paper bags: you may have to pay for these

• reusable bags: bring your own (or buy and reuse)

Main Aisles and Sections

Here are the main aisles (or sections) in a grocery store as well as some example items you will find in them.

produce: fresh fruit and vegetables

frozen food: juice, pizzas, fruit and vegetables

bulk food: peanuts, candy, flour, snacks (You bag yourself. You choose the amount.)

baking: pre-packaged goods such as flour, sugar, salt, and chocolate chips.

breads: packaged breads, bagels, hamburger and hot dog buns

meat and seafood: packaged beef, chicken, fish

deli: freshly sliced meats and cheeses (You tell the butcher how much you want.)

bakery: fresh breads, muffins, cakes to order

dairy: milk, eggs, dairy, yogurt

pasta and rice: spaghetti, penne, wild rice, whole wheat pasta

ethnic foods: foods from countries in other parts of the world

canned foods: beans, pasta sauce, canned fruit and vegetables

condiments: ketchup, BBQ sauce, salad dressings, oil

snacks: chips, packaged candy, cookies, crackers

cereal: boxed breakfast cereals and bars, oats, granola.

beverages: juice, pop, coffee, tea,

household items: toilet paper, tissue paper, garbage bags, detergent, diapers

health and beauty and or pharmacy: make up, deodorant, feminine products, medicine

Checkout

Read the signs above you before you get into a line.

• express checkout: For people buying a few items. The sign will show how many items you are allowed to have (1-12).

• automatic checkout: You swipe and bag your own groceries and pay with a credit or debit card.

• closed: Many stores use a lighting system to show which line ups are open for service. If the light is on the aisle is likely open.

Questions to ask in a Grocery Store

You don’t always need to ask someone who works in the store. The shopper next to you may be able to tell you where to find the sugar.

• Can you tell me where the produce section is?

• Can you do a price check for me?

• Do you have prepackaged candy?

• Do you have more flour in the back? (if a shelf is empty)

• Is this on sale?

• Do you sell stamps, lottery tickets, alcohol? (grocery stores in some countries are not licensed to sell alcohol)

Discounts

Do you have a discount card? Many clerks will ask this. Membership cards at grocery stores are usually free. They provide you with a discount on many items. Are you going to use this store a few times? Fill out a form and get a card! It will be worth your time. If you don’t have a card, don’t be fooled by the prices on food. Many foods are advertised at membership prices. Without a card you’ll pay a higher price. Brand-name items are typically more expensive than no-name or store-named items.

Common Courtesy

If the person behind you only has one or two items, you can invite the shopper to go in front of you. Say, “You can go ahead of me. You’re just buying a few things.” If there is a divider (small stick) on the conveyor belt at the checkout, place it after your items. This will allow the person behind you to start placing his or her groceries down too.

Grocery Shopping Tips

Did you write out a list? Creating an English grocery list is a fun and simple way to practise English. You can even create a master list using the sections above. Add subcategories for all the foods you normally buy. Leave extra spaces for special items that you need once in a while. If you’re shopping with children, bring a snack or toy!

How to be an Earth-Friendly Traveller



At home you may know the rules about recycling. You know where to put the papers. You know where the plastics belong. You even know which bottles can be returned. Good habits often go out the window when you are travelling. Sometimes this is out of laziness. Sometimes it is because you don’t know the language or the rules of the region you are visiting. It’s easy to be earth-friendly in English. Just ask your nearest human for help!

Questions you may need to ask

Do papers go in here?

Where can I recycle the papers?

Where do the plastics go?

Who picks up the papers for recycling?

Can this be recycled?

Can I compost this?

Do you have a compost pile?

Where does the trash belong?

Can I return my bottles here?

Where can I buy a reusable bag?

Is this bin for bottles?

Which day is the recycling picked up?

When is garbage day?

Where can I buy a reusable bottle?

How do I turn this off?

Is there a used/second hand clothing store around here?

Earth Friendly Choices

I don’t need a bag.

I don’t need a receipt.

I’m okay to walk.

I’d like to rent a bicycle.

I’m looking for LED lights.

I’m looking for a recycling bin.

Note: When a clerk asks “Do you need any bags today?” this means you will have to pay for your plastic or paper bags. It is a way to promote reusable bags. Many stores sell reusable bags at the checkout.

Wordchecker:

compost: a pile of soil that food and yard waste can be added to (also used as a verb)

LED lights: an energy saving light bulb

More lessons about the environment

What is recyclable in your country? Use the comments to tell us about environmentally friendly programs in your country.

Taking a Taxi

If you are travelling to an English speaking country for business or pleasure, you will likely use a taxi. Here are some useful words and phrases to help you enjoy a smooth ride:

Asking someone to call you a taxi

Would you call me a taxi, please? I’m going to _____________ (your destination).

OR

Could you give me the number for a taxi service?

Calling a taxi yourself

When the dispatch operator answers you will hear something like “Circle Taxi. How can I help you?” or “Yellow Taxi. Where are you located?”

You will need to provide the address of where you are (your location) and where you are going (your destination).

For example:

Can I get a taxi to the airport? I’m at the Crown Hotel.

Questions for a taxi dispatch operator:

Can I schedule a taxi pick up for 5am tomorrow?

Is there a flat rate to the airport from here?

What will it cost me to go from my hotel to the airport?

How long is the wait for a taxi right now?

Flagging down a taxi

In some locations you don’t need to call a taxi. You can just wave your hands at one as it drives close to you. This is called “flagging” or “hailing” a taxi down. Stand close to the road and wave your arm out. An empty taxi will pull over for you. Many people get in the back of a taxi instead of the front passenger seat. A taxi without its light on is likely already on a taxi run for someone else.

Questions the driver may ask you

Where are you heading?

How will you be paying? (cash, credit card, debit, foreign exchange)

Do you want a flat fee?

Do you need a receipt?

Telling the driver your destination

Can you take me to the airport, please.

I’m going to the Star Motel downtown.

Do you know where the Brick St. Pub is?

I’m going to 501 Main St. please.

Questions for your taxi driver

Would you mind making a quick stop? (if you need to pick someone or something up on the way-the driver will likely keep the meter running even if you are not in the car)

What’s your exchange rate? (f you have foreign money)

Do you have a flat fee to the airport?

Do you accept debit?

Do you accept credit cards?

What do I owe you?

What to say when leaving the cab

Keep the change. (if you are offering a tip)

May I have a receipt please? (if you need it for business purposes)

Thanks for the ride.

Enjoy the rest of your day.

Words you may need to know

location: your current place

destination: where you are going

metre: the machine that reads the distance and calculates the cost

fare: the amount you must pay

tip: the extra money you offer for safe, friendly, and prompt service

car seat: a seat for a child

luggage: your bags and suitcases

cab: short form for a taxi cab

flag or flag down: to indicate that you want a taxi or bus to stop

pick up: the taxi picks you up at your current location

drop off: the taxi drops you off at your destination

van: a larger taxi that has more seats

Tip: Making small talk with a friendly taxi driver is a great way to practise your English. Don’t be shy!

How to Survive an English Wedding

Weddings are very visual. There are so many people to watch and so many events to see. You can enjoy a wedding even if you don’t understand the language. Here is some wedding vocabulary to learn:

The Wedding Party

The wedding party refers to all of the people who are in the wedding. These people typically stand at the front during the ceremony. They often wear clothing that matches the theme of the wedding. They also sit with the couple for dinner.

bride: woman getting married

groom: man getting married

best man: groom’s best friend or closest family member (witness to the marriage)

maid of honour: bride’s best friend or closest family member (witness to the marriage)

groomsmen: other male friends or family members who stand up with the groom

bridesmaids: other female friends or family members who stand up with the bride

flower girl: young female child who carries the flowers

ring bearer: young male child who carries the wedding rings

Other People at Weddings

guests: all of the people who go to the wedding

priest/minister/justice of the peace: person who legally marries the couple

emcee: host; person who does most of the talking at the wedding reception

DJ: person who plays the music

photographer: person who takes the wedding pictures

caterer: person (or company) who makes the food for the reception

Typical Wedding Schedule:

1. Guests arrive at the ceremony

2. Wedding party walks down the aisle to music

3. Bride’s father escorts her down the aisle to music

4. Bride and groom exchange vows (promises to be together forever)

5. Groom kisses the bride

6. Minister invites the guests to congratulate the newlyweds

7. Wedding party walks back down the aisle to music (sometimes confetti is thrown)

8. Wedding party poses for professional photographs (break time for guests)

9. Reception (party) begins

10. Emcee introduces him or herself

11. Dinner is served

12. Friends and family deliver speeches (ex. stories about the couple or cheers to the couple)

13. Bride and groom have first dance

14. Dancing continues

13. Bride and groom cut the wedding cake

14. Dessert is served

15. Bride throws her bouquet (flowers) to single women

16. Groom removes the garter (small band worn around bride’s leg); throws to single men

17. DJ announces last song

18. Bride and groom depart (some guests are already gone)

19. Bride and groom take a honeymoon (a vacation to celebrate the marriage)

What to say to the bride and/or groom after the wedding

Congratulations!

You look stunning. (very beautiful)

You look handsome. (very good looking; say to males)

Your dress is gorgeous.

The food was delicious.

Thank you for inviting us.

We really enjoyed ourselves.

The wedding was beautiful.

When’s the honeymoon?

Questions you may need to ask at a wedding

Where is the gift table?

What time is the reception?

Where should I sit? (You may need to tell the groomsmen if you are a guest of the bride or groom.)

Who are the bride’s parents?

Which one is the best man?

What is the maid of honour’s name?

How do you know the bride and groom? (What is your connection to the couple?)

Can I take your photograph?

When will the dancing start?

Where is the washroom?

Survival Challenge: Share the “typical” schedule of a wedding in your culture. Use a step by step system like the one above. Your comment may help a reader survive a wedding in your country!

Airport English

Airports are stressful even in your own native country. Practise these English phrases before you travel to English speaking destinations.

Tip: Print these and keep them as a “cheat sheet” in your carry-on luggage.

Questions you will hear at the check-in counter:

Ticket please.

May I see your ticket?

Do you have an e-ticket?

Do you have some photo ID?

How many bags are you checking?

Did you pack these bags yourself?

Do you have a carry-on bag? (a bag or purse to take on the airplane)

Do you require special assistance? (example a “wheelchair”)

Have you paid your airport improvement fee/tax?

Would you like a window or an aisle seat? (aisle is pronounced “eye + l”)

Problems you may hear:

Your baggage is overweight. (Remove some contents or pay a fine.)

Your carry-on luggage is too large.

Your flight is delayed. (It’s late.)

Your flight has been cancelled. (You must rebook a new flight)

Your connecting flight/connection has been cancelled/is delayed.

Your ticket is expired.

Your passport is expired.

Commands and questions at the Security Checkpoint:

Boarding pass, please.

ID please. (show your photo ID)

Spread your arms out please. (Put your arms up and out to the sides of your body)

Take your shoes off.

Open your bag.

Take off/remove your belt.

Do you have any change in your pockets?

Do you have any metals?

Do you have any food/produce?

Do you have any liquids or medicine?

Walk through.

You must dump all food or beverages. (You can’t bring it through the gates.)

Questions YOU may need to ask:

Is my flight on time?

When should I be at the gate?

Where is the boarding gate?

Where is the washroom?

Can I get a window seat?

Is there somewhere to eat?

Can I get a coffee at the gate?

Is my connection on time?

Where do I collect my baggage?

Where can I find a taxi?

Where is the departure gate?

Where is the arrival gate?

Where is the check-in desk for ….airlines?

Where is the domestics level?

Where is the international level?

More Airline Vocabulary

Practise Checking-in

Wordchecker:

cheat sheet: a small piece of paper with answers or hints that you have with you

departures: flights that are leaving this airport

arrivals: flights that are landing at this airport

e-ticket: a ticket you purchased online and printed from your computer

aisle seat: a seat next to the long walking path on the plane

boarding pass: the ticket you give at the gates (has your seat number)

belt: clothing item that holds up pants (sets off metal detector)

metals: items such as jewellery, coins, belt buckles, knives, keys

liquids: beverages

expired: no longer useful (the date has passed)

check-in: show your ticket and ID and hand in your baggage

connection: the point where your plane lands and you must catch another plane

domestic: in the same country as the airport

international: in a different country than the airport

Interjections

Interjections


Hi! That's an interjection. :-)

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjection meaning example

ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."

expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."

dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"

eh asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

hello, hullo expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"

hey calling attention "Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"

hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"

hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement "Hmm. I'm not so sure."

oh, o expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

well expressing surprise "Well I never!"

introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

Conjunctions

Conjunctions


A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

• Single Word

for example: and, but, because, although

• Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:

- Jack and Jill went up the hill.

- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:

- I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:







Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

• I like [tea] and [coffee].

• [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

• She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:

F A N B O Y S

For And Nor But Or Yet So

Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:

• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:







Look at this example:

main or

independent clause subordinate or

dependent clause

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

subordinating

conjunction



A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:





Ram went swimming although it was raining.











Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

English Prepositions

English Prepositions


A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:

• She left before breakfast.

• What did you come for?

(For what did you come?)

Short List of Common Prepositions

English Prepositions List

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.

For a full list of 150 prepositions, try this downloadable ebook, English Prepositions List by English Club founder Josef Essberger:

• includes one-word and complex prepositions

• 370 example sentences

• 200 quiz questions with answers

• immediate download to your computer

• read on your computer or print out on paper

• works on Windows or Mac

• aboard

• about

• above

• across

• after

• against

• along

• amid

• among

• anti

• around

• as

• at

• before

• behind

• below

• beneath

• beside

• besides

• between

• beyond

• but

• by

• concerning

• considering

• despite

• down

• during

• except

• excepting

• excluding

• following

• for

• from

• in

• inside

• into

• like

• minus

• near

• of

• off

• on

• onto

• opposite

• outside

• over

• past

• per

• plus

• regarding

• round

• save

• since

• than

• through

• to

• toward

• towards

• under

• underneath

• unlike

• until

• up

• upon

• versus

• via

• with

• within

• without



A Simple Rule for Prepositions

English Preposition Rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions.

Rule

A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.

By "noun" we include:

• noun (dog, money, love)

• proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)

• pronoun (you, him, us)

• noun group (my first job)

• gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.

Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the above rule:

• I would like to go now.

• She used to smoke.

Here are some examples:

Subject + verb preposition "noun"

The food is on the table.

She lives in Japan.

Tara is looking for you.

The letter is under your blue book.

Pascal is used to English people.

She isn't used to working.

I ate before coming.



Prepositions of Place

at the bus stop, in the box, on the wall

Prepositions of Place: at, in, on

In general, we use:

• at for a POINT

• in for an ENCLOSED SPACE

• on for a SURFACE

at in on

POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE

at the corner in the garden on the wall

at the bus stop in London on the ceiling

at the door in France on the door

at the top of the page in a box on the cover

at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor

at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet

at the crossroads in a building on the menu

at the front desk in a car on a page

Look at these examples:

• Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.

• The shop is at the end of the street.

• My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.

• When will you arrive at the office?

• Do you work in an office?

• I have a meeting in New York.

• Do you live in Japan?

• Jupiter is in the Solar System.

• The author's name is on the cover of the book.

• There are no prices on this menu.

• You are standing on my foot.

• There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.

• I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:

at in on

at home in a car on a bus

at work in a taxi on a train

at school in a helicopter on a plane

at university in a boat on a ship

at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike

at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant

at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television

at the side in a row on the left, on the right

at reception in Oxford Street on the way



Prepositions of Time

at Christmas, in May, on Friday

Prepositions of Time: at, in, on

We use:

• at for a PRECISE TIME

• in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS

• on for DAYS and DATES

at in on

PRECISE TIME MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS DAYS and DATES

at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday

at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays

at noon in the summer on 6 March

at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day

at sunrise in the next century on Independence Day

at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday

at the moment in the past/future on New Year's Eve

Look at these examples:

• I have a meeting at 9am.

• The shop closes at midnight.

• Jane went home at lunchtime.

• In England, it often snows in December.

• Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?

• There should be a lot of progress in the next century.

• Do you work on Mondays?

• Her birthday is on 20 November.

• Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:

Expression Example

at night The stars shine at night.

at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.

at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.

at the same time We finished the test at the same time.

at present He's not home at present. Try later.

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:

in on

in the morning on Tuesday morning

in the mornings on Saturday mornings

in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons

in the evening(s) on Monday evening

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.

• I went to London last June. (not in last June)

• He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)

• I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)

• We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Pronouns

Pronouns


Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

• Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.

With pronouns, we can say:

• Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns

I, me, you, he, him, she...

Demonstrative Pronouns

this, that, these, those

Possessive Pronouns

mine, yours, his...

Interrogative Pronouns

who, what, which...

Reflexive Pronouns

myself, yourself, himself...

Reciprocal Pronouns

each other, one another

Indefinite Pronouns

another, much, nobody, few, such...

Relative Pronouns

who, whom, which...

Pronoun Case

subjective, objective, possessive

That's Not My Job!

This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

Adverbs

Adverbs


Adverbs are an important part of speech. They usually answer questions such as how?, where?, when?, how often? and how much?

What is an Adverb?

What do adverbs do? What's their job?

What is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.

• John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)

• Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)

• Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)

But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:

• Modify an adjective:

- He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)

- That was extremely kind of you.

• Modify another adverb:

- She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)

- He drives extremely fast.

Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

• Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.

• Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.



Adverb Form

How do we make adverbs?

Adverb Form

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:

• quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)

• careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)

• beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)

There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:

Adjective ending do this adjective adverb

most adjectives add -ly quick

nice

sole

careful quickly

nicely

solely

carefully

-able or -ible change -e to -y regrettable

horrible regrettably

horribly

-y change -y to -ily happy happily

-ic change -ic to -ically economic economically

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The words friendly, lovely, lonely and neighbourly, for example, are all adjectives.

And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:

• well, fast, very, never, always, often, still

Note that the form of an adverb can also change to make it comparative or superlative.



Kinds of Adverbs

What are the main kinds of adverbs?

Kinds of Adverbs

Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.

• He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)

• They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)

• James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)

We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs.

• He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.

• She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.

Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.

• Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)

• They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)

• Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.

They can answer the question "when?":

• He came yesterday. (When did he come?)

• I want it now. (When do I want it?)

Or they can answer the question "how often?":

• They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)

• We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)

Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

• She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)

• Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)

• He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?)



Adverb Position

Where do we place the adverb in a sentence?

Adverb Position

When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause:

1. FRONT - before subject Now I will read a book.

2. MID - between subject + verb I often read books.

3. END - after verb/object I read books carefully.

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example:

adverb adjective

She gave him a really dirty look.

adverb adverb

We quite often study English.

The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place, time, degree). The following table gives you some guidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb.

Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many exceptions.

kind of adverb mainly modifies sentence usual position

adverb

manner verbs She stroked his hair gently. END

place verbs He was working here. END

time definite verbs He finished the job yesterday. END

frequency We often go to Paris. MID

degree verbs, adjectives and adverbs I nearly died. MID

It was terribly funny. before adjective

He works really fast. before adverb



Adverbs of Frequency

hourly, weekly, once a year...

always, sometimes, never...

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:

a. daily, weekly, yearly

b. often, sometimes, rarely

You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.

We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence.

In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

• Adverbs of Definite Frequency

• Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency







Adverbs of definite frequency

Examples:

• hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly

• every second, once a minute, twice a year

• once, twice, once or twice, three times

Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position. Look at these examples:

• Most companies pay taxes yearly.

• The manager checks the toilets every hour.

• The directors meet weekly to review progress.

Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at the FRONT, for example:

• Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency

Examples:

• never, seldom, sometimes, often, always

100% always, constantly

usually, normally

frequently, regularly

often

50% sometimes

occasionally

rarely, infrequently

seldom

hardly ever

0% never

Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"):

• We usually go shopping on Saturday.

• I have often done that.

• She is always late.

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:

• Sometimes they come and stay with us.

• I play tennis occasionally.

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):

• We see them rarely.

• John eats meat very seldom.

Adverbs of Manner List

Alphabetical list of common single-word manner adverbs

Adverbs of manner form the largest group of adverbs. We make most of them simply by adding -ly to their corresponding adjective. This is an alphabetical list of 130 common single-word adverbs of manner. Adverbs of manner that do not end in -ly are shown in bold.

Accidentally angrily anxiously awkwardly badly beautifully

blindly boldly bravely brightly busily calmly

carefully carelessly cautiously cheerfully clearly

closely correctly courageously cruelly daringly

deliberately doubtfully eagerly easily elegantly

enormously enthusiastically equally eventually exactly

faithfully fast fatally fiercely fondly

foolishly fortunately frankly frantically generously

gently gladly gracefully greedily happily

hard hastily healthily honestly hungrily

hurriedly inadequately ingeniously innocently inquisitively irritably

joyously justly kindly lazily loosely loudly

madly mortally mysteriously neatly nervously noisily

obediently openly painfully patiently perfectly politely

poorly powerfully promptly punctually quickly quietly

rapidly rarely really recklessly regularly reluctantly

repeatedly rightfully roughly rudely sadly safely

selfishly sensibly seriously sharply shyly silently

sleepily slowly smoothly so softly solemnly

speedily stealthily sternly straight stupidly successfully

suddenly suspiciously swiftly tenderly tensely thoughtfully

tightly truthfully unexpectedly victoriously violently vivaciously

warmly weakly wearily well wildly wisely

Adverbs of Time List

List of common single-word time adverbs

points of time (definite):

• now

• then

• today

• tomorrow

• tonight

• yesterday

frequency (definite):

• annually

• daily

• fortnightly

• hourly

• monthly

• nightly

• quarterly

• weekly

• yearly

The word "bimonthly" is ambiguous and best avoided. Bimonthly can mean "twice a month" or "every two months". The same is true of "biyearly"/"biannually".

frequency (indefinite):

• always

• constantly

• ever

• frequently

• generally

• infrequently

• never

• normally

• occasionally

• often

• rarely

• regularly

• seldom

• sometimes

• regularly

• usually

relationships in time (indefinite):

• already

• before

• early

• earlier

• eventually

• finally

• first

• formerly

• just

• last

• late

• later

• lately

• next

• previously

• recently

• since

• soon

• still

• yet

Adverbs of Place List

Alphabetical list of common single-word place adverbs

About above abroad anywhere away back

backwards (also backward) behind below down downstairs

east (etc) elsewhere far here in indoors inside near nearby

off on out outside over there towards under up upstairs

where

Common suffixes

• -wards or -ward (backwards, downwards, eastward, forwards, homewards, upwards)

• -where (anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere)

Note that some adverbs can also be prepositions.

• She was waiting with a red scarf on. (adverb)

• She put the red scarf on the table. (preposition)

Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech


There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. When we want to build a house, we use concrete to make the foundations or base. We use bricks to make the walls. We use window frames to make the windows, and door frames to make the doorways. And we use cement to join them all together. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job.

We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech".

Some grammar books categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. At EnglishClub, we use the traditional categorization of 8 parts of speech (see table for more details).

It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and understand them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.

In this lesson, we have an overview of the eight parts of speech, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

• Parts of Speech Table

• Parts of Speech Examples

• Words with More than One Job

Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*. You can find more detail if you click on each part of speech.

part of speech function or "job" example words example sentences

Verb

action or state (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must EnglishClub.com is a web site. I like EnglishClub.com.

Noun

thing or person pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Adjective

describes a noun a/an, the, 69, some, good, big, red, well, interesting My dog is big. I like big dogs.

Adverb

describes a verb, adjective or adverb quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

Pronoun

replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

Preposition

links a noun to another word to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.

Conjunction

joins clauses or sentences or words and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjection

short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

* Some grammar sources categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. At EnglishClub.com, we use the traditional categorization of 8 parts of speech. Examples of other categorizations are:

• Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech:

o Lexical Verbs (work, like, run)

o Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must)

• Determiners may be treated as a separate part of speech, instead of being categorized under Adjectives

• Parts of Speech Examples

• Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:

verb

Stop!

noun verb

John works.

noun verb verb

John is working.



•

pronoun verb noun

She loves animals.

noun verb adjective noun

Animals like kind people.



•

noun verb noun adverb

Tara speaks English well.

noun verb adjective noun

Tara speaks good English.



•

pronoun verb preposition adjective noun adverb

She ran to the station quickly.

•

pron. verb adj. noun conjunction pron. verb pron.

She likes big snakes but I hate them.

• Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

interjection pron. conj. adj. noun verb prep. noun adverb

Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.

Words with More than One Job

Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.

To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in this sentence?"

In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of the words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word "but" has six jobs to do:

• verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjuction!

word part of speech example

work noun My work is easy.

verb I work in London.

but conjunction John came but Mary didn't come.

preposition Everyone came but Mary.

well adjective Are you well?

adverb She speaks well.

interjection Well! That's expensive!

afternoon noun We ate in the afternoon.

noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

English is not Phonetic

English is not Phonetic


Contents:

Glossary of Pronunciation Terms

Word Stress in English

Understanding Syllables

Rules of Word Stress in English

Sentence Stress in English

Linking in English

o Understanding Vowels & Consonants for Linking

o Linking Consonant to Vowel

Linking Vowel to Vowel

English Phonetic Spelling

Phonemic Chart

Contractions

Homophones List ~ Contractions

What Are Homophones?

Common Homophones List

Pairs

o Minimal Pairs /b/ and /v

o Minimal Pairs /l/ and /r/

o Minimal Pairs /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/

Alphabet Sounds

Tongue-Twisters

Always remember that English is not "phonetic". That means that we do not always say a word the same way that we spell it.

Some words can have the same spelling but different pronunciation, for example:

• I like to read [ri:d].

• I have read [red] that book.

Some words have different spelling but the same pronunciation, for example:

• I have read [red] that book.

• My favourite colour is red [red].

Learn the 52 Sounds of English

The English language may have 26 letters of the alphabet, but it has double that number of sounds: 52. Knowing and recognizing the 52 sounds will help to give you good pronunciation. Of course, everybody knows that good pronunciation helps our speaking. But do you know that good pronunciation also helps our listening?

Glossary of Pronunciation Terms

Glossary of Pronunciation Terms


accent the unique speech patterns of a person or group

affricate a speech sound (consonant) that contains a stop followed by an immediate fricative, as in the ch /ʧ/ in "chair"

air flow/airstream the flow or passage of air out of the mouth

alveolar sound formed by touching the tip of the tongue to the upper alveolar ridge, as in /t/ or /d/

alveolar ridge the bony region at the roof and bottom of the mouth behind the front teeth; contains the tooth sockets

approximants consonants with a partial obstruction of airflow, as in /w/ and /r/

articulation the act of making speech sounds

aspiration a small "explosion" of air when you make a sound

auditory hearing (not seeing)

bilabial consonant sounds formed using both lips, as in /p/ or /b/

close vowel (sometimes called "high" vowel) a vowel sound that is pronounced with the tongue close to the roof of the mouth (but not close enough to constrict the air and make a consonant), as in /i:/ in the word "free"

consonant a speech sound made when there is complete or partial obstruction of air in the mouth, as in /v/, /h/, /d/ (compare vowel)


clusters blended sounds put together to make a single sound

curl a position of the tongue where the tongue is shaped in a curve, not flat

dental a consonant sound made when the tongue touches the upper teeth, as in /t/ and /n/

dialect unique vocabulary, pronunciation and usage that is typical of a certain group of people

diphthong a sound made by the combination of two vowel sounds in a single syllable, as in "boy", "loud" or "wide", where the sound starts as one vowel and moves towards another vowel

flatten a positioning of the tongue where the tongue is flat not round

fricative a speech sound (consonant) in which air is forced to pass through a small opening and creates friction, as in /f/ and /v/

glide/slide moving the tongue while saying a word

glottal stop the sound that is made when the vocal folds are closed very briefly; as in the middle of the word "uh-oh" (common in American English)

gum the tissue around the base of the teeth

hard palate hard part of the roof of the mouth

intonation change in pitch of a sentence, up and down; the music or rhythm of speech

labiodental sounds that are made with the lower lip and upper teeth, as in /f/ and /v/

larynx the hollow, muscular organ in the throat that holds the vocal chords; the voice box

lateral a speech sound that is made by touching the tongue to the middle of the alveolar ridge, allowing air to pass on both sides

lengthen sound make the duration of the sound longer

linking

the joining of words when speaking, as in "Ca-nI-ha-va-bi-to-fegg?" (Can I have a bit of egg?)

lips spread lips are open slightly and pulled back

lower bottom of mouth

minimal pairs two words that differ only in terms of one sound, as in "cat and bat" OR "fine and vine"

monophthong a single vowel sound that does not change in auditory quality; also called a "pure vowel"

nasal consonants consonant sounds made by pushing air through the nose, as in /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/

non-pulmonic when the air comes from a source other than the lungs

obstruction a blockage of air flow

open vowel (also called "low" vowel) a vowel that is produced with the tongue far down from the roof of the mouth, as in the /a:/ sound in "far"

palatal a sound that is made when the tongue is near or touching the roof of the mouth

palate the roof of the mouth

phoneme an individual speech sound

phonetic alphabet an alphabet that represents the sounds of speech

phonetic transcription a form of notation that uses symbols to identify the individual sounds (phonemes) in a word

plosive a consonant sound produced when there is a complete obstruction of air followed by its sudden release, as in the /p/ of "pot"

pitch amount of highness or lowness of a sound or speech

postalveolar a consonant sound made with the tip of the tongue slightly back from the alveolar ridge, as in /ʃ/ in "shut"

pressed lips top and bottom lips touching

protruded lips rounded lips, pushed out

pulmonic a sound that is made using the airstream directly from the lungs

raised higher than the neutral position

reduction the natural shortening of sounds when speaking (e.g. "going to" reduced to "gonna")

rhotic a variety or dialect of English in which "r" is pronounced before a consonant (as in "hard") and at the end of words (as in "car"); Midwestern American English, for example, is "rhotic"

roof the inside top part of the mouth

rounded lips lips formed into the shape of a circle

rounded vowel a vowel made with rounded lips

sentence stress

the placement of emphasis on specific words within a sentence or phrase

shorten sound make the duration of a sound shorter

soft palate soft part of the roof of the mouth

sonorant sounds that are made when air is impeded only slightly, as in /m/, /n/

stop (stop consonant) a consonant sound that is produced when the airflow is (temporarily) stopped entirely by the lips or tongue, as in /p/

syllable a single unit of sound that creates one beat in a word; the word "coffee" has two syllables (cof-fee)

syllable nucleus the central part of a syllable, usually a vowel

tap touch quickly

tone the emotion that is conveyed through the sound of speech (e.g. anger or sadness)

tongue muscular tissue in the mouth used for tasting and articulating

tooth ridge the hard area directly behind the top front teeth

trill a vibrating sound made with a flapping tongue, as in the rolled "r" sound made when people roll their r's

upper top of mouth

velar of a sound that is made with the back of the tongue near the soft palate, as in the the /ŋ/ in "sing"

velum a soft membrane on the roof of the mouth (also called "soft palate")

vocal chords (AmE cords) two muscles inside the larynx that vibrate and create the voice

vocal tract the entire apparatus that produces voice, starting in the lungs and ending at the lips and nostrils (openings of the mouth and nose)

voiced of a sound made with the vocal chords (voice box) vibrating

voiceless/unvoiced of a sound made without the vocal chords (voice box) vibrating

vowel a speech sound made when air is free to pass through the mouth with little or no obstruction, as in sounds made with the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y (compare consonant)


vowel backness position of the tongue in relation to the back of the mouth when making a vowel sound (positions include front, near-front, centre, near-back, back)

vowel height distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth when pronouncing a vowel sound (IPA has 7 heights: close (highest), near-close, mid-close, mid, open-mid, near-open, open (lowest)

word stress

the placement of emphasis within a word that has more than one syllable